Consider the Butterfly

Most of us enjoy seeing a butterfly flitting among wildflowers or passing through a garden. We may not stop to think, though, that the seemingly carefree butterfly is on a life-or-death mission. Every butterfly must gather nutrients, either from flower nectar or other sources, to support itself long enough to find a mate, and if it is a female, to also produce and lay eggs.

Butterflies, while carrying out this mission, pollinate the flowers they visit. Pollen grains from one flower, say a daisy, stick to the butterfly. When the butterfly visits a second daisy, the pollen from the first flower is transferred to the second. In this way, the flowers can carry out their mission, which is to produce more of their own kind. While flowers can be pollinated by other sources, such as by other insects or by the wind, many flowers are structured to be most efficiently pollinated by the visiting butterfly.

The Whole Equals the Sum of Its Parts

Butterflies and their close relatives, the moths, make up the insect order Lepidoptera. Like all insects, butterflies have six jointed legs, three body segments (head, thorax, abdomen), and a pair of antennae. Lepidopterans have specialized wings covered with scales. The scales are what give the butterfly's wings such brilliant colors.

The head of a butterfly bears two antennae, two compound eyes, two palpi, and a coiled proboscis. (See diagram below.) The antennae provide sensory information to the butterfly, primarily in the form of scent.  The compound eyes provide a complex form of sight. The palpi (sing. palpus) provide sensory information and serve to protect the proboscis. The proboscis is the sucking mouthpart through which the butterfly takes up nectar and other sources of nutrients.

The thorax is the body segment behind the butterfly's head. It houses the important wing muscles, and is where the wings and the three pairs of legs are attached. The wings come in two pairs, a pair of forewings and a pair of hindwings. The wings are divided into small sections by veins, which provide the structural scaffolding of the wing. Each wing is covered with overlapping scales of several sorts - pigment, refractive, and sex scales.

The abdomen is very much the working end of the butterfly in that it houses the organs necessary for digestion and reproduction. These organs include those necessary for mating and, in females, for laying eggs.

Behind Every Great Butterfly is a Great Caterpillar

Every butterfly you see is technically a senior citizen. It has already lived most of its life, mainly in a form that is very different from the butterfly. Butterflies lay eggs, like other insects. From each egg hatches a caterpillar, the larval stage of a butterfly. Its sole purpose in life is to find its host plant and consume as much of it as it possibly can!

Caterpillars are obviously much different than butterflies. Wingless, they get around on three pairs of jointed, or "true" legs, and five pairs of prolegs. Caterpillars are equipped with special chewing mouthparts, silk producing glands, and possibly defensive structures, such as hairs or spines. As the caterpillar eats it grows, but its growth is limited by the size of its unstretchable skin. To get around this limitation, it molts - sheds its own skin. Each caterpillar will molt several times during its life; the stage in between each molt is called an instar. As you might expect, the second instar is larger than the first, the third is larger than the second, and so on.

The very last molt produces, not another instar, but a pupa. Butterfly pupae have a smooth outer covering, called the chrysalis. Some butterfly pupae are additionally covered with strands of silk forming a cocoon. Within the pupa, metamorphosis takes place. This is the process where the entire body of the insect is literally rearranged to produce an adult butterfly. When complete, the butterfly emerges from the chrysalis by crawling out of a split in the pupa's skin, and prepares its wings for flight. Then it's off to find food and love!

A Monarch By Any Other Name is Still a Monarch

Each species is presented with its scientific name, comprised of the genus name and the "species epithet." These are written in Latin, and are recognized by scientists of all nationalities who study butterflies throughout the world. An example is Danaus plexippus, the scientific name for the Monarch.  Note that the scientific name is always italicized (or underlined). The scientific name allows for everyone to be clear about which butterfly is being referred to; common names, such as "Monarch", are often variable and ambiguous. 

Many of the species included here have multiple common names. In these cases, we have included as many of the common names as possible, and have chosen to highlight the common name recognized by the National American Butterfly Association.

Several of the scientific names presented in this section include a third name, given in brackets: for example, "Callophrys [Incisalia] augustinus." The name in brackets is the genus name previously used to describe the given species. Not surprisingly, as scientists learn more about specific groups of butterflies, the groups are often divided up or regrouped, and the genus names describing the groups changed. When looking up a particular butterfly in another source, either (or both!) genus names may be used.

Finally, as if all of this was not confusing enough, some species occur as a "COMPLEX." This refers to a whole group of very closely related species or subspecies. The lines dividing one species from another within a complex are often debated by scientists and can change as more facts are gathered about the species in question.

Consider the Dragonfly

The thought of dragonflies at a pond or lake is a reminder of lazy, carefree, summer days. However, the life of a dragonfly is very active. When we spend some time and watch them carefully, we see that their days are filled with activities, most of which are intended to obtain energy to survive and reproduce.

Most of the dragonflies we see at a pond or lake will be males. Each male tries to establish a territory that he aggressively defends against any other males of his species. Once this is done, most of each day will be spent defending his territory. This requires a lot of energy, therefore he must also eat large amounts of flying insects, such as mosquitoes. He also needs the energy of the sun to keep his muscles warm. This is why you will not see many dragonflies on cool cloudy days! His reward for successfully defending his territory is the opportunity to mate with every female that enters his territory. His lifestyle requires sharp vision and swift wings. Without them he will fail to acquire enough energy to successfully defend a territory, and will not pass on his genes to a new generation of dragonflies.

The females do not need to defend a territory, but they do need to acquire the energy and nutrients to produce thousands of eggs. The production of so many eggs requires that females eat large numbers of small flying insects, just like the males. The females do most of their hunting away from the water to avoid harassment by the males until they are ready to lay eggs.

There are 67 species of dragonflies and damselflies known to reside in Idaho.

The Whole Equals the Sum of Its Parts

Dragonflies and damselflies make up the insect order Odonata. The name Odonata comes from the Greek word for "toothed". It refers to the teeth on the mandibles of dragonflies. The Odonata can be further divided in the true dragonflies (suborder Anisoptera) and damselflies (suborder Zygoptera).

Like all insects, dragonflies and damselflies have six jointed legs, three major body parts (head, thorax, and abdomen), and a pair of very short antennae. Unlike butterflies and moths, dragonflies and damselflies have no scales on their wings and the wing veins can be seen clearly.

The head of a dragonfly bears two large compound eyes, two antennae, a powerful pair of mandibles, and a lower jaw-like structure called a labium. The compound eyes provide a field of vision that extends above, ahead and to the sides of the dragonfly. The eyes are so large that in many of the larger species the eyes cover almost the entire head. The antennae are used in flight to detect air speed and direction, and to determine the temperature of possible egg-laying sites. The mandibles are wedge-shaped and stout, and are used for chewing. When a dragonfly is eating its prey, the prey is held in the labium and chewed with the mandibles.

The body part immediately behind the head is the thorax. Both the wings and legs are attached to the thorax. It consists of three segments which are all slanted backwards causing the legs to be brought forward and the wings pushed backwards. This is critical to the dragonfly's hunting because it puts the legs in position more under the mouth to catch prey from the air and bring it to the mandibles to chew. The thorax also houses the muscles that propel the wings in flight. There are two pairs of wings--a pair of forewings and a pair of hindwings. The damselflies' forewings and hindwings are similar in size and shape; in fact, the name Zygoptera means "same wings". The forewings and hindwings of the dragonflies are different in size and shape, and accordingly, the name Anisoptera means "different wings". The wings contain many veins, which provide structural support. These veins can be easily seen and are used in the identification and classification of Odonata. In fact, the major veins all have commonly accepted names, as you can see in the diagram.

The abdomen is the major body part behind the thorax. It contains ten segments, and houses the organs necessary for digestion and reproduction. These organs include those necessary for mating, and in the case of the females, the organs necessary for laying eggs. At the end of the males' last segment are the anal appendages. These appendages are used to grasp the female behind the head during mating. Each species has differently shaped anal appendages, so they are very useful in identifying many species of dragonfly.

Behind Every Great Dragonfly Is a Great … Naiad?
What's a Naiad?

When you see a dragonfly flying with incredible skill and agility, it may be hard to believe that it spent most of its life as a wingless, water-breathing, immature form called a naiad. The term "naiad" is specific to dragonflies and mayflies because their immature forms and lifestyles are very different from the adults, and the immatures do not undergo a pupal stage like butterflies. A nymph is an immature form of an insect that shares the general appearance and lifestyle of the adult. A larva is very different from the adult form, but transforms into the adult during an inactive pupal stage. A naiad retains its immature form until it sheds its skin for the last time and the adult emerges from the cast skin, which is called an exuvia. Since the naiads of dragonflies are aquatic and the adults require air to breathe, the naiad has to crawl out of the water for the adult to emerge successfully.

Dragonfly naiads are very different in appearance and lifestyle from the adults. The adults are brightly colored winged insects, while the naiads are aquatic insects that are colored in mottled browns and olive greens. The naiad does share the adult's predatory lifestyle, however. All dragonfly naiads are carnivorous without exception, and they have an amazing adaptation to this carnivorous lifestyle. The labium of the naiad, which is a mouthpart similar to our lower jaw, is lengthened and hinged. It can be shot in the direction of prey almost the length of the naiad's body. The end of the labium has hooks on it that grasp the prey so it can be dragged back to the mouth and be chewed by the mandibles.

The skin of the naiad also serves as its skeleton. It cannot grow with the naiad, but must be shed. In some species this shedding is done up to a dozen times as the naiad grows. The period between each molt is called an instar. During the last instar the wingpads on the naiads back turn dark, and for the next molt the naiad will climb out of the water and the adult will emerge from the cast-off skin, or exuvia.

The newly hatched adult is soft and weak, and is not ready to take part in the territorial battles at the water's edge. The first flight, or maiden flight, is always directed away from the water. The immature adult will roam the forests and meadows for a week or more before it is sexually mature and strong enough to establish a territory and pass on its genes.

The abdomen is the major body part behind the thorax. It contains ten segments, and houses the organs necessary for digestion and reproduction. These organs include those necessary for mating, and in the case of the females, the organs necessary for laying eggs. At the end of the males' last segment are the anal appendages. These appendages are used to grasp the female behind the head during mating. Each species has differently shaped anal appendages, so they are very useful in identifying many species of dragonfly.

An Emerald by Any Other Name Is Still an Emerald

Before proceeding through the rest of this section on the dragonflies of Idaho, we should clarify a few things. It will be more interesting and helpful to you to read the Introduction first (which you have almost done!). Then move on to the Family Tree, and from there to each Family Page and its individual Family Members (species).

Each species is presented with its scientific name and its common name. The scientific name is in Latin. It consists of a genus name (capitalized) followed by the non-capitalized species name. These scientific names are universal so that scientists everywhere can recognize a species by its Latin name, no matter what language he/she speaks. This avoids confusion because common names vary from place to place and from language to language. An example of a scientific name would be Anax junius, the Latin name for the Common Green Darner. The scientific name should always be italicized, if possible, or underlined if it can't be italicized. Each species has only one scientific name, even though it may have many common names. We have included the common name that has been assigned to each of the Idaho species by the Dragonfly Society of the Americas. But beware when using common names since they may not be the same everywhere you go.

Among the people that study dragonflies in North America, agreement on the various species is widespread. We have very few species complexes or subspecies that can make exact identification of butterflies so difficult. There is some mild-mannered debate about how different species of dragonflies are divided into genera and families, and their evolutionary relationships, but most odonatologists (biologists who study dragonflies) generally agree on what the species are.

Dragonflies may be the easiest group of insects to learn and identify. Compared to most orders of insects, there are very few species of dragonflies. For example, in North America there are over 11,000 species of Lepidopterans (butterflies and moths) compared to only 500 to 600 species of Odonates (dragonflies and damselflies). It may still sound like a lot, 500 - 600 species is a small group in the insect world. This is about the same as the number of species of birds in North America. Dragonflies are also larger than most insects and the adults are usually distinctly colored. All these factors make dragonflies an excellent group to begin developing identification skills such as learning to use an identification key.

The Class Amphibia

The Amphibia are characterized by having moist, glandular skin that lacks the keratinized scales of reptiles. Most amphibians have complex life cycles (adults, eggs, and larvae that metamorphose into juveniles).  Amphibians lay eggs that are non-amniotic (they lack the amniotic membrane that surrounds the embryo).  Amphibian eggs don't have a shell, instead they are surrounded by several gelatinous layers. Most amphibian larvae have gills and most adults have lungs.  In many amphibians, the skin is also important in gas exchange.  The class Amphibia includes the orders Gymnophiona (caecilians), Urodela (newts and salamanders) and Anura (frogs and toads). Of these three, only the last two are represented here in Idaho. The caecilians (Gymnophiona) are limbless amphibians found mostly in the tropics.

Order: Urodela
(Salamanders and Newts)

  Amphibians in this order are characterized by having a true tail. In fact the name "Urodela" translates as "visible tail."  Adult characteristics are the lack of a tympanum (external ear drum), and legs that are adapted to walking rather than jumping or hopping. Generalized larval characteristics of the order are that they have teeth, are carnivorous, and have limbs during most of their development.

Order: Anura
(Frogs and Toads)

  The order Anura is comprised of the frogs and toads. The most readily distinguishable characteristic of this order is the absence of a tail in the adult form. In fact the name Anura is translated as "without a tail."  Even species that appear to have a tail don't really have one.  For example, Idaho has a species named the Tailed Frog. However, this is not a true tail; rather it is the everted cloaca.   The caudal vertebrae of anurans are fused into a rod called the urostyle (Pough, 1998).  Adult anurans lack an outwardly apparent neck. And finally, their hind limbs are longer than their front limbs, being modified for hopping, jumping or swimming.

  The larvae of anurans are called tadpoles.  Tadpoles in general, lack true teeth, are usually herbivorous, and develop hind limbs before front limbs (which is the opposite of Urodela larvae).  Anuran larvae also lack external gills, having opercular chambers that allow water to flow over internal gills, before exiting through a spiracle.

Author: John Cossel Jr.,1997

The Class Reptilia

Reptiles are characterized by having dry skin with keratinized epidermal scales.  In addition to their scales, reptiles have true claws (if limbs are present).  If they lay eggs (some give live birth), the eggs are amniotic and have a shell that allows them to develop in a manner less reliant on water than amphibians.  The class Reptilia includes the orders: Testudines (tortoises and turtles), Crocodylia (alligators and crocodiles), Rhynchocephalia (Tuatara), and Squamata.  Squamata includes the suborders Sauria (lizards) and Serpentes (snakes).  The orders represented here in Idaho are Testudines and Squamata

Order: Testudines
(Turtles)

The reptiles that comprise the order Testudines are easily recognizable.   No other vertebrate has the hard shell that surrounds and protects the organs of turtles.  Turtle shells consist of two basic parts, the top shell which is referred to as a carapace, and a bottom shell that is known as a plastron.   The two parts of the shell are connected on each side by a portion of the shell known as the bridge.  Turtle ribs and vertebrae, with the exception of the neck and tail, are fused to form the carapace (Pough et al., 1998).   The outer surface of turtle shells are comprised of keratinized scutes or laminae (Goin and Goin, 1971).  The Latin word-root "test" is synonymous for shell, and the order name "Testudines" is Latin for turtle.

Turtles are oviparous and have internal fertilization.   Fertilization is accomplished by a penis which is an outgrowth of the cloacal wall (Pough et al., 1998).  Turtle eggs are buried in a nest and left to incubate and hatch.  Another feature of Testudines is the lack of teeth.  The jaws of many Testudines are sharp-edged or serrated to provide a cutting surface.  The beak is covered by a horny layer of keratin.

A final characteristic we will mention here is the lack of holes in the temporal region of the skull, a condition known as anapsis.  This feature is unique among living reptiles (Goin and Goin, 1971; Pough et al., 1998).

Not only are turtles easy to identify as being members of the order Testudines, in Idaho there is only a single representative.  The Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta) is in the family Emydidae, which is one of twelve families that comprise the order Testudines.

Order: Squamata

Characteristics of the order Squamata include a transverse vent or cloacal opening (Goin and Goin 1971), skulls that are more moveable (or kinetic) than other reptile orders, paired copulatory organs called hemipenes, keratinous scales that cover the body, and the shedding of the outer epidermal layer (ecdysis).   Other evolutionary trends for many Squamates include the loss or reduction of limbs and the ability to lose the tail (caudal autotomy) at distinct fracture planes (Pough et al. 1998)

The order Squamata is the most diverse of the reptile orders, containing 96% of the reptile species (Nussbaum et al. 1983).  In Idaho, there are 21 species of squamates, but only 1 species of testudines and no species of crocodylians.  Within the Idaho squamates, there are enough distinct differences to address the lizards (Lacertilia) and the snakes (Serpentes) separately.

Lizards: (Lacertilia)

Characteristics that distinguish Idaho Lacertilia from the group Serpentes are the presence of four limbs (there are some lizards species elsewhere that lack limbs), visible ear openings, and movable eyelids.  These three characters alone should allow you to readily recognize Idaho lizards.

Snakes: (Serpentes)

Snakes have several unique characteristics that should allow you to readily identify them as members of the group Serpentes.  All snakes lack limbs; there are however, some species that have vestigial limbs in the form of small spurs (e.g. the rubber boa).  All snakes lack eyelids; there are some lizard species that lack eyelids, but none in Idaho.  Snakes have no external ear opening; some burrowing lizards lack ear openings as well, but all Idaho lizard species have an external ear opening.  Finally, snakes have a elongate body.  Again, there are some lizard species that are limbless and have long slender bodies, but none of these species occur in Idaho.

Author: John Cossel Jr. © 1997
Design and Optimization by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Adaptation for DAI by Stephen Burton, and Mike Legler © 1999.

WHAT ARE MAMMALS?

An answer to the above question only becomes clear when the characteristics of mammals are known and understood. Mammals are a diverse group that inhabits a great diversity of habitats: from temperatures well over 100 degrees to well below minus 30 degrees, from very dry deserts to life in a pond or stream. There are strict vegetarians to strict carnivores. Their characteristics are the result of a wide range of adaptations that allow them to survive in the wide variety of environmental conditions they live in.

It is also important to consider their history. From a few small animals existing in a limited number of ecological niches, small mammals have evolved and adapted to a broad diversity of niches. Mammals evolved during the warm, wet climate of the geological era called the Mesozoic, which existed from 200 to 70 million years ago. The late Mesozoic, known as the "Age of the Dinosaurs" was a time when reptiles were most abundant and numerous. A few mammals lived then, but they were small, weasel-like insect eaters. Their small size and quickness might have helped them to avoid larger and slower reptilian predators. The evolution of hair for insulation and endothermy,(warm bloodedness) gave them opportunities to occupy more niches, especially when climates during that era became colder. Because reptiles were ectothermic (cold blooded), they could only be active during warmer periods when temperatures allowed their physiological systems to function efficiently. We can see this temperature restriction today when we compare the number of mammal species in Idaho to the number of reptile species; there are many more mammals than reptiles. When the large, numerous reptiles began to diminish in numbers during the late Mesozoic, the mammals were well adapted to expand their range and diversity. They could reproduce at maximum rates, acquire food efficiently, and survive in the climates and ecosystems of that time. During the most recent geologic era, the Cenozoic, which has been called the "Age of Mammals", they diversified and their numbers increased rapidly. Today the trend may be reversed; human destruction of habitat has accelerated the extinction of mammal species and there is concern that we are losing mammal diversity .

The first characteristics we usually think of when we think of mammals is "hair" and "nursing their young". Hair grows from the epidermis of the skin, contains the protein keratin, which gives it resiliency, and hair provides insulation and protective coloration. Most mammals have thick coats that insulate them well. A river otter foraging along a river such as the Salmon River, in mid-winter when it is minus 350 , attests to the insulative value of hair. Mammal milk provides young mammals with a good start in life. They can acquire it easily and it is highly nutritious. In provides an abundance of nutrients and even some antibodies from the mother, which helps the young resist infections and diseases. Nursing insures that the mother is providing intensive care of the young.

Certain physiological adaptations are important also. The mammal heart is four-chambered and capable of rapidly circulating a high volume of blood. This rapid circulation accommodates a higher metabolic rater and the maintenance of a constant body temperature. Mammalian heart rates vary, but generally, are more rapid in smaller mammals. Below are some heart rates of selected mammals.

Mammal Heart Rate	(Beats per minute)
Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus)	588 -1320
Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus)	660 - 702
Mink (Mustela vison)	272 - 414
Human (Homo sapiens)	55 - 75
Horse (Equus caballus)	34 - 55

As you can see, smaller mammals have a much higher heart rate than larger mammals. This is related to the "surface to volume ratio" difference of small versus large mammals. Smaller mammals have a proportionately larger surface area, relative to their volume, exposed to the environment than larger mammals. Thus, they lose proportionately more body heat to the environment. A loss of body heat is a loss of energy, and smaller mammals must compensate by being more active, and eating proportionately more than larger mammals. The sense organs of mammals are very well developed.

The sense of smell is acute, hearing is quite variable but generally well developed (and much better than that of humans), and eyesight is typically very good. It has been reported that when bears first emerge from hibernation, they search for carrion(dead animals) which often is plentiful in early spring from winter deaths. There is some evidence that a bear can smell the carcass of a dead animal such as an elk from many miles away, perhaps up to 10 miles. Small insectivores, such as shrews, have poor eyesight and rely on hearing. Some shrew species even use echolocation to help them navigate about their environment. Pronghorns, which live on prairies, have very specialized eyes. The rods and cones of their eyes are arranged on a horizontal plane in the back of the eye, which allows them to see movement and objects that are quite far away on toward the horizon. Bats, of course, rely very heavily on echolocation. Echolocation demands a very keen sense of hearing. The tactile sense, or touch, of many mammals is very good. Vibrissae, or long whiskers, are tactile organs and may be very important, especially for nocturnal mammals.

Mammal skeletons are variable, and especially adapted to the various modes of locomotion. Consider that mammals can fly (bats), glide (northern flying squirrel), climb (tree squirrels), swim (beavers and muskrats), run and gallop (hoofed mammals), dig and live underground (pocket gophers), etc. Their skeletal modifications include long, strong legs for running, different foot structures for climbing, digging, and running, and modifications of the front and hind limbs for flying and gliding. Teeth are also an important adaptation. The hardest part of the body, teeth persist in the environment long after the animal is dead, and years later they are often the only part of the animal we find. Because teeth reflect the diet of the animal very closely, then can usually indicate what the mammal ate.

Mammals have evolved various reproductive strategies that ensure high survival rates for long numbers of young. Internal fertilization and development in the uterus provides a safer environment than that for eggs laid externally by distant mammal ancestors such as amphibians and reptiles. The reproductive season is controlled by hormones that produce the estrous cycle. During estrus, when the mammal is "in heat", the uterus is prepared for implantation of a fertilized egg.

We can think of two basic reproductive strategies, quantitative and qualitative. Rodents are quantitative: female rodents often breed shortly after giving birth to a litter of young. Four weeks later they can be nursing another litter. Qualitative species, such as weasels and bats, only have one small litter per year. The survival rate of their young is much higher than that for rodents, chiefly because of more intensive and long-term parental care. Some larger mammals such as bears, have young only every 2 or 3 years, and the young stay with the mother for about 2 years. While their young production is low, the level of parental care is intensive, which greatly increases the survival of the young.

Order: Insectivora (Shrews & Moles)
Shrews, the smallest mammals, are also important because they represent the most primitive mammals. Their characteristics most closely resemble primitive mammals that fossil evidence indicates evolved during the era of dinosaurs. As the name implies, they feed primarily on insects and other small invertebrates. This order includes two families, Soricidae, the shrews and Talpidae, the moles. In Idaho, we have relatively few species.

Order: Rodentia (Rodents)
Most are small, secretive, nocturnal, abundant, and difficult to observe. Without a doubt, the majority of mammals in Idaho are rodents, and about one-third of all mammals, about 1,700 species, are rodents. Their abundance is due partly because they occupy a wide diversity of niches; from tree tops, to undergound burrows, to the water, to human shelter, such as cabins, barns and garages. Their primary distinguishing characteristic is large, ever-growing, chisel-like incisors that occur in pairs in both the upper and lower jaw. These incisors are kept chisel-like because the tips of the upper incisors wear away the tips of the lower ones and vice versa. This keeps them sharp and much like the shape of chisel blade. As primary consumers they are low on the food chain. They also provide many meals for predators and thus have a short life. Only a high reproductive potential overcomes their high mortality. Many rodents have large litters and reproduce up to several times each year. Some rodents, even though they are primarily vegetarians, are also good predators. Many feed on a variety of invertebrate prey, especially insects. Some, such as ground squirrels can be so abundant that they consume crop plants to the excess. Others, such as pocket gophers, may create problems for farmers and ranchers. Overall, though, they are ecologically beneficial and important in most Idaho ecosystem.

Order: Carnivora (Carnivores)

Order: Artiodactyla (Hoofed Mammals)

Order: Chiroptera (Bats)
Of the 26 orders of mammals in the Class Mammalia, the order Chiroptera, which means winged hand, is graced with an amazing diversity of 925 recognized species. In fact, bats are one of the most diverse groups of mammals, achieving second place to the largest group, the rodents. Many people think of bats as flying rodents, but bats are really more closely related to primates.

Although the familial diversity of bats is especially high in the tropics, only one group, the family Vespertilionidae, is known to occur in Idaho. It is likely that one additional species, Tadarida brasiliensis, the Mexican free-tailed bat, a member of the Family Molossidae, will be found in the extreme southwestern corner of Idaho as our collecting effort expands into less accessible habitats. A Idaho echolocation recording does exist for this species in that area. Additionally, I suspect that Lasiurus blossevillii, the Western red bat, a member of the family vespertilionidae may occur in Idaho. Fourteen species of vespertilionids are confirmed with museum voucher specimens. All Idaho bats feed on insects, two are obligate tree roosters and one appears to be restricted to cracks in desert canyons containing cliffs. The remaining species are found in multiple roost situations.

Three distinct characteristics that separate Idaho bats from other Idaho mammals include the ability to fly, echolocate, and the rotation of the upper leg bones. Rotation places the knee joints on the opposite side of the leg. The leg position aids wing support and permits bats to hang upside down, a condition enhancing rapid flight from a resting state and enabling watchful vigilance if they are not hibernating. Some bats hibernate in Idaho during winter whereas others migrate to warmers regions.

Order: Lagomorpha (Pikas, Rabbits and Hares)
Legendary for their ability to reproduce, members of the order Lagomorpha are found on every continent. The order includes two families: Ochotonidae, the Pikas, and Leporidae, the rabbits and hares.

Information by Donald Streubel ©2000.
Page design by Ean Harker ©2000.
HTML by Mike Legler 2000.

Introduction to Plants

The classification of plants is subjective. In spite of this, every plant belongs to a species, every species to a genus, every genus to a family, every family to an order, every order to a class and every class to a division. Each of these groups is called a "taxon (plural taxa)." There are more than 350,000 species of plants world wide which have been described. In the state of Idaho there are some 2,800 species of plants. Included in this number are horsetails, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants. Commonly these are referred to as "Higher Plants." These 2800 plants do not include algae, fungi, club mosses, liverworts, etc., Commonly referred to as "lower Plants."

One example of Plant Classification is as follows:

 The plants described in this atlas are two of the above groups, the Division 11 Coniferophyta (Pinophyta) and the Division 13 Anthophyta (Magnoliophyta). Two examples of the Division 13 is as follows:

The Class Pinopsida includes mostly trees, such as hemlocks, firs, spruces, larches, and redwoods, but also includes shrubs such as junipers and Japanese yews. Their leaves are simple, often scale-like or needle-like. The leaf bases are not persistent. The wood (xylem) is compact, composed mostly of tracheids, with narrow rays. The pith and cortex are restricted, thus the xylem makes up the majority of the stem. The stem is often differentiated into long portions and short spur shoots. From the stem, the vascular tissue (leaf traces) into the leaf may be one or just a few. The ovules are most often borne in compound cones (strobili) or the ovules may be borne singly.

The pines, or their relatives, may be and often are the dominant type in many forested regions in northern Idaho or in ravines in southern Idaho. Many are valuable for lumber, manufacture of paper, or for naval stores. Some may reach ages up to 4600 years. The leaves are evergreen with the exception of larches, which lose their leaves in the fall. Growth is seasonal and periodic, depending upon temperature and moisture availability. There are two kinds of leaves-the obvious needles and the less obvious scale leaves which occur on the main branches and bases of the needles. The needles in the pines are borne singly in one Idaho species, the singleleaf pinion pine, but most often in 2's, 3's, or 5's. In the other conifers, the needles are borne singly. Moisture loss is prevented by a heavily cutinized epidermis and wax coating. The trunks and branches increase in diameter by cell division in the cambium layer, which is cylindrical. Cross sections of the stems reveal concentric circles caused by thin-walled cells in the spring growth and thicke-walled cells in late season growth. Reproduction results from a combination of pollen produced in small ephemeral cones and ovules produced in the more obvious woody cones. Both occur on the same tree or shrub. The ovules are commonly borne in pairs on the upper surface of the cone scales. Some, because of their large size, are considered edible to humans, such as pinion pine nuts. The seeds of most genera and species are eaten by mammals and birds.

Written by Karl Holte, 2002