Gavia immer
(Common Loon)

Order: Gaviiformes
Order Description: Loons
Family: Gaviidae
Family Description: Loons

Physical Description:
Size: 28-36" (70-90 cm). A large, long-bodied, low-swimming waterfowl. Bill stout, straight, dagger shaped, dark. Breeding adults have a glossy- green/black head. Back black, checkered with white. White necklace. In winter, gray- brown above and white below.

Similar Species- Yellow-billed loon has an upturned, yellow bill. Pacific loon is smaller with pale gray crown and nape

Song:
Calls are a series of yodels and falsetto, maniacal laughter. A tremulous ha-oo- oo-oo. Usually silent in winter.

Distribution:
Breeds in Iceland, Greenland, and across Canada and northern U.S. to Alaska. Winters along Pacific Coast from Aleutians to northern Mexico, and along Atlantic and Gulf coasts from Newfoundland to Florida and Texas.

Habitat:
Primarily marine when not breeding. During migration, found on inland lakes, rivers, and coastal waters. In Idaho, breeds occasionally on a few lakes and reservoirs in southeastern Idaho, mostly in Fremont County.

Diet:
Feeds mainly on fishes, but may also eat amphibians and various invertebrates.

Ecology:
Builds platform nest on ground, at edge of shallow water. If nesting on small lake, may use adjacent lake for supplementary foraging. Dives from water surface to obtain food. Studies in different sections of U.S. indicate range of territory size from 39 ha (Saskatchewan) to 503 ha (New Hampshire). Species occurs as transient and breeder in Idaho, occupying water bodies that have suitable conformation and are not affected by human disturbance factors. Size and elevation of lake, water depth and clarity, and nesting habitat requirements are important factors in site use.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate usually 2 eggs (but frequently 1), for 26-31 days. Initially, both sexes tend young, which fly at 10-12 wk. Most brood mortality may occur within a week of hatching. Generally, loss of eggs to predators is not primary cause of breeding failure. Female renests usually 5-14 days after egg loss. Sensitive to disturbance by boaters at the nest.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Fitch, T. and C.H. Trost. 1985. Nesting status of the common loon in Idaho. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 23pp.

Photo by Fred Fallon, ©200
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Podilymbus podiceps
(Pied-billed Grebe)

Order: Podicipediformes
Order Description: Grebes
Family: Podicipedidae
Family Description: Grebes

Physical Description:
Size: 12-15" (30-38 cm). A small, drab-brown grebe with a thick, short, chicken-like bill. Note the black bill ring and throat patch in the breeding season. Grebes have a similar appearance to ducks and have thick necks, lobed toes and a tailless look. In the winter, bill and throat patch are white. Sexes similar

Song:
A yelping yeow-yeow-yeow-yeow- keowm-keowm-keowm

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern Alaska, east through southern Canada to Nova Scotia, and south locally through North and Middle America to South America. Winters in southern British Columbia, south through western and southern U.S. to South America.

Habitat:
During migration and when not breeding, found on brackish bays and estuaries. When breeding, found on lakes, ponds, sluggish streams, and marshes. In Idaho, prefers large lakes and reservoirs, but known to occur on smaller waters.

Diet:
Primarily feeds on fishes, crustacians, and insects, but will also consume amphibians, other invertebrates, and some plant material.

Ecology:
Builds platform nest in emergent vegetation in water about 1 m deep. Forages mainly by short dives in shallow water. Generally, density is 1 nesting pair on ponds of up to 4 ha, but many more are possible. One study found defended area with 46-m radius around nest, but nests may be closer than this. Residents form pairs or family groups, and are more gregarious in winter.

Reproduction:
Female lays 1 clutch (possibly 2 in some areas) of 2-10 (usually 4-7) eggs, and commonly renests if first clutch is lost. Incubation (mostly by female) lasts 20-27 days. Young fly by about 5 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by C.S. Robbins,© 2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Podiceps auritus
(Horned Grebe)

Order: Podicipediformes
Order Description: Grebes
Family: Podicipedidae
Family Description: Grebes

Physical Description:
Size: 12-15" (30-40 cm). Sexes similar. During breeding season, rusty neck and lower-parts. Distinctive golden ear tufts. Dark head and back. Bill slender and dark. In flight, leading edge of wing white, white speculum. In winter, black "cap" on head with white neck.

Similar Species- Eared Grebe has black neck and crested head, no white on leading edge of wing. Red-necked Grebe is larger with white cheek and long bill with yellow base.

Song:
High squeals or a sharp ka-raa during breeding season. Generally silent.

Distribution:
Breeds in central and southern Alaska and Canada, south to Idaho, northern South Dakota, northern Iowa, and central Wisconsin. Winters mainly coastally south to California, Texas, and Florida. May breed rarely in southeastern Idaho.

Habitat:
When breeding, found on marshes, ponds, and lakes, and occasionally along sluggish streams. When not breeding, occupies bays, estuaries, and seacoasts.

Diet:
Usually eats small fishes, crustacians, and aquatic insects, but will also consume amphibians and leeches.

Ecology:
Usually nests among tall vegetation in shallow water. Predation may result in high nest losses. Size of breeding territory reflects location and abundance of food supply. Forages by diving in shallow water, often near emergent vegetation, but will also pick food from water surface or from vegetation. Usually not gregarious, except at staging and resting areas prior to and during migration.

Reproduction:
In southern Canada, female lays eggs mid-May to mid-July. Both sexes incubate 4-6 eggs for 22-25 days. Young are tended by one or both parents; most young fledge by 6-7 wk. Female renests if nest is destroyed.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,© 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Podiceps grisegena
(Red-necked Grebe)

Order: Podicipediformes
Order Description: Grebes
Family: Podicipedidae
Family Description: Grebes

Physical Description:
Size: 18-22" (45-74 cm). This large grebe has a long, rufous neck with a white cheek and black cap on its head. Long bill, yellow at base. Body dark above and white below. Sexes similar. In winter, grayish with a white crescent-shaped strip on its neck. In flight, white speculum and leading wing edge.

Similar Species- Horned grebes are smaller, with slender black bills and golden ear tufts. Western and Clark's grebes are larger with white necks.

Song:
Generally silent. A sharp bark may be heard during breeding season.

Distribution:
Breeds in Alaska and western and south-central Canada, south to Washington, Montana, northeastern South Dakota, and Minnesota; rarely breeds elsewhere in northern United States. Winters coastally from Alaska to southern California, and also from Nova Scotia to central Florida (casually along Gulf Coast). In Idaho, breeds uncommonly on Panhandle and in south-central and southeastern Idaho.

Habitat:
Winters along seacoasts, bays, and estuaries. During migration, found on lakes, ponds, and rivers. In Idaho, prefers large lakes with clear water.

Diet:
Feeds on small fishes where available, but also eats aquatic and land insects, crustaceans, mollusks, aquatic worms, tadpoles, salamander eggs, some vegetable matter, and feathers.

Ecology:
Nests on floating or half- submerged vegetation. Usually nests solitarily, but will sometimes form loose colonies. Breeding territory size varies in accordance with food supply and other ecological factors. Dives underwater and forages on or near bottom for food. Flees by diving rather than flying.

Reproduction:
Peak egg-laying activity occurs in June in many areas. Male and female in turn incubate usually 3-5 eggs for 22-27 days. Both parents tend young, which probably become independent at 8-10 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Taylor, D.M. and C.H. Trost. 1987. The status of rare birds in Idaho. Murrelet 68:69-93.

Photo by C. Trost, ©1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Podiceps nigricollis
(Eared Grebe)

Order: Podicipediformes
Order Description: Grebes
Family: Podicipedidae
Family Description: Grebes

Physical Description:
Size: 12-14" (30-38 cm). This small grebe has a distinctly crested head with golden "ears" during the breeding season. Thin black neck. Body dark, sometimes with rufous coloring on the sides. Sexes similar. In winter, dark neck and ear region contrasting with whiter face. Body dusky above, white below.

Similar Species- Horned Grebes have chestnut necks and flanks, lack crested head. Ear tufts more pronounced on Horned Grebe. In winter, these two species very similar. Eared grebe has slender neck, ill defined cap, and slightly upturned bill.

Song:
A loud ker-yeep! on the breeding range.

Distribution:
Breeds in southwestern Canada, east to Manitoba, and south through parts of western and midwestern U.S. to central Mexico. Winters mainly coastally, from Bitish Columbia to Guatemala, but also winters inland from northern Nevada and Utah south to Guatemala.

Habitat:
During migration and in winter, found on salt lakes, bays, estuaries, and seacoasts. Some individuals migrate to coast in fall; some remain inland during winter, in loose flocks on large bodies of fresh water. When breeding, found on marshes, ponds, and lakes.

Diet:
Diet includes aquatic insects and larvae, small fishes, crustaceans, and other small invertebrates

Ecology:
Feeds on or under surface of water. Escapes by diving. Migrates at night. Builds platform nest on shallow water. Usually nests in colonies on larger lakes (100 pairs on 1 lake is not unusuall). In Idaho, dense colonies of 10-30 pairs have been reported, and in 1993, 266-346 nests were estimated to exist. Gregarious at all times of year. Several hundred thousand may congregate in late summer and fall at Mono Lake, California.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins in mid-April in southern range, and in late May or June in north. both adults, in turn, incubate an average of 3-4 eggs from 20-22 days (southeastern Idaho study reported 2.6 eggs/nest on 11 nests). Young are reportedly independent in 3 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. 1994. The status and distribution of colonial water birds in northern Idaho and selected species in southern Idaho, 1994. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 31pp.

Photo by C. Trost, ©1999.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Aechmophorus occidentalis
(Western Grebe)

Order:Podicipediformes
Order Description:Grebes
Family:Podicipedidae
Family Description: Grebes

Physical Description:
Size:22-29" (56-74 cm). This is a large black and white grebe. It's long neck is white on the front and black on the back. It's black cap extends down below the eye. Body black. Bill yellow. Sexes similar.

Similar Species- The Clark's Grebe and Western Grebe were formerly considered to be the same species. The distinguishing morphological difference between them is that the cap on the Clark's Grebe does not extend past the eye. The Clark's Grebe's bill is also orange-yellow.

Song:
A two-part crick-crick. Heard most often during breeding season, but also heard occasionally during winter.

Distribution:
Breeds mainly from western Canada, east to southwestern Manitoba, and south through U.S. from California and Utah east to upper midwestern states. Winters mainly along Pacific Coast from southeastern Alaska to northwestern Mexico.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, lakes, and bays. During migration and in winter, also found on sheltered seacoasts, less frequently along rivers. In Idaho, prefers large rivers and reservoirs that include shallow water areas with emergent vegetation.

Diet:
Diet consists mainly of fishes; opportunistic as to species eaten. Also eats insects (adults and larvae, especially in spring and summer), mollusks, crabs, marine worms, and salamanders. Ingests feathers and small stones.

Ecology:
Builds platform nest on shallow water. Nests in colonies of sometimes hundreds or thousands of birds. In Idaho, nests in large colonies and isolated pairs that are susceptible to water fluctuations. Young may ride on backs of adults. Individuals dive from water surface to obtain food.

Reproduction:
Reported average clutch size is about 2.2-3.3 in southeastern Idaho, 2.5 in Utah, 3.4 in Colorado, and 4.2 in North Dakota. Dump nesting may result in large clutch in one nest. Both adults incubate, in turn. Incubation lasts 3-4 wk. Brood size is usually 1-3. Young are tended by both parents

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. 1994. The status and distribution of colonial waterbirds in northern Idaho and selected species in southern Idaho, 1994. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 31pp.

Photo by Luther Goldman and George Jameson, ©2002
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.

Aechmophorus clarkii
(Clark's Grebe)

Order: Podicipediformes
Order Description: Grebes
Family: Podicipedidae
Family Description: Grebes

Physical Description:
Size: 25" (63 cm). This is a large dark-gray and white grebe. Formerly considered to be a pale morph of the Western Grebe. It has a long, slender neck that is white on the front and black on the back. Note that its black cap does not extend below the eye. Bill orange-yellow. Sexes similar.

Similar Species- The Clark's Grebe and Western Grebe were formerly considered to be the same species. The distinguishing morphological difference between them is that the cap on the Western Grebe extends past the eye. The bill of the Western Grebe is yellow.

Song:
A one-note creek!

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern Alaska, east to southwestern Manitoba, and south into portions of western and midwestern U.S.; also breeds in Mexico. Winters from southern British Columbia, south along Pacific Coast (sometimes inland) to Mexico.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, lakes, and bays. During migration and in winter, also found along sheltered seacoasts, and, less frequently, along rivers. Usually forages in deeper water than Western Grebe.

Diet:
Eats fishes and aquatic invertebrates.

Ecology:
Builds platform nest on shallow water. Nests colonially, often mixed with Western Grebes. Dives from water surface to obtain food. Species is rare in northern range, but as common as Western Grebe in south. Often seen in association with Western Grebes, but species is less common than the latter in Idaho. Ecology and reproduction are similar to, but not as well understood as, Western Grebe.

Reproduction:
Female lays 1 clutch of 3-4 eggs. Incubation (by both sexes) lasts about 23 days. Young leave nest at hatching, and are tended by both parents.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 101pp.

Photos by C. Trost and Peter S. Weber,© 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Pelecanus erythrorhynchos
(American White Pelican)

Order: Pelecaniformes
Order Description: Pelicans, Cormorants
Family: Pelecanidae
Family Description: Pelecans

Physical Description:
Size: 54-74" (137-138 cm). This is a large white bird with black primary and secondary flight feathers. Note the large, yellow, pouched bill. It has a wingspan of 8 to 9.5 feet. In flight, it alternately soars and flaps. Flies with neck bent and head close to body.

Similar Species- The Trumpeter Swan has no black on its wings. The Whooping Crane flies with its neck straight.

Song:
Generally silent.

Distribution:
Breeds in Canadian Prairie Provinces and parts of northwestern and midwestern U.S., south to coastal Texas. Winters along Gulf and Pacific coasts south to Guatemala. In Idaho, breeds at Minidoka National Wildlife Refuge, Blackfoot Reservoir, and on Snake River near Glenn's Ferry.

Habitat:
Found on rivers, lakes, estuaries, and bays. In Idaho, found on large inland reservoirs and island nests.

Diet:
Feeds mainly on fishes of little commercial value (e.g., carp, perch, catfish, suckers, stickleback). Eats some salamanders and crayfishes.

Ecology:

Gregarious. Nests on ground, in rimmed scrape. In Idaho, several nesting colonies have been abandoned due to human distrubance. Foxes and coyotes are nest predators. Estimates from 1993 survey indicate 150-175 nexts are located at Minidoka NWR and 80-100 nests are located at Blackfoot Reservoir.

Reproduction:
Both adults incubate 2 eggs (usually); rarely does more than 1 young fledge (in an Idaho study, 5 nests yielded an average of 1.8 young/nest). Young are tended by both adults, leave nest in about 21-28 days, and first fly at 7-10 wk. In Manitoba study, 34-38 days elapsed between time flocks first flew over colony sites and time eggs hatched.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 101pp.

Photo by Marcus Martin, ©1999.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Phalacrocorax auritus
(Double-crested Cormorant)

Order: Pelecaniformes
Order Description: Pelicans, Cormorants
Family: Phalacrocoracidae
Family Description: Cormorants

Physical Description:
Size 30-36" (76-91 cm). Idaho's only breeding cormorant. A goose-sized, black or dark bird. Immature birds light brownish. Breeding adults have inconspicuous tufts on either side of the crown of the head. Head normally uplifted. Distinguished from other cormorants by its orange-yellow throat patch. Cormorants will fly in lines or wedges, similar to geese, but are silent. Neck kinked when in flight.

Similar Species- No other cormorants normally breed in Idaho. Very distinct.

Song:
Generally silent.

Distribution:
Breeds throughout much of North America (locally in interior), from southern Alaska, Manitoba, and Newfoundland, south to Gulf Coast and northwestern Mexico. Winters throughout most of coastal breeding range.

Habitat:
Found on lakes, rivers, swamps, and seacoasts. In Idaho, occupies larger water courses and reservoirs.

Diet:
Feeds primarily on nongame fish.

Ecology:
Dives from water surface to obtain food; usually feeds in water less than 15 m deep. Forages cooperatively. Nests mostly in colonies; entire colony will nest either in tree or on ground. Increased sea surface temperatrues, such as those associated with El Nino events, were correlated with decreases in nesting populations in Washington. Species is common transient and summer breeder in Idaho, where nesting areas are easily disturbed by man. Gulls prey on eggs. Young can suffer from heat prostration.

Reproduction
Both sexes in turn incubate 2-9 eggs (usually 3-4), for 24-25 days (southeastern Idaho study found average of 3.5 young for 12 nests). Young first fly to water at about 35-42 days, and become independent at 10 wk. Adults usually breed by third year.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 101pp.

Photo by George Jameson, ©2002 and Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Botanus lentiginosus
(American Bittern)

Link to photo provided by the USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Ciconiiformes
Order Description: Bitterns, Herons, Egrets,and Ibises
Family: Ardeidae
Family Description: Bittern

Physical Description:
Buffy brown with a streaky breast. When disturbed it stands still with its bill pointed skyward. In flight its dark primaries contrast with the buffy brown back.

Song:
A deep "gulping" gurgle is made.

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern Alaska, east to Newfoundland, south across upper and middle U.S. and locally along Gulf Coast and down to Mexico, Winters from southwestern British Columbia, southeast through parts of U.S. to southern Mexico.

Habitat:
Found on freshwater bogs, swamps, wet fields, cattail and bullrush marshes, brackish and saltwater, and meadows.  In Idaho, also occurs on streams, canals, reservoirs, and wet meadows.

Diet:
Eats mainly fishes, crayfishes, amphibians, mice, shrews, and other animals, and insects.

Ecology:
Nocturnal, crepuscular. Nests on ground, never is trees or bushes.  Mostly solitary, but may nest in loose colonies.  Species is easily overlooked and may be quite common.

Reproduction:
Female (apparently) incubates 2-6 eggs (usually 3-5), for 24-28 days. Young leave nest at about 14 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references available at this time.

Written by Jason Karl, 2000.
Additional information by C. Trost, 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.

Nycticorax nycticorax
(Black-crowned Night-heron)

Order: Ciconiiformes
Order Description: Bitterns, Herons, Egrets,and Ibises
Family: Ardeidae
Family Description: Herons, Bitterns, and Egrets

Physical Description:
Size 23-28" (58-71 cm). A medium sized heron with stocky build and thick, black, slightly down-turned bill. Glossy black-green crown, gray wings and, underparts white. Three large white plumes on the back of the neck. Short neck. Usually stands hunched, inactive. Immatures are mottled brown with buff spots or streaks.

Similar Species- Immature Black-Crowned Night-Herons can resemble American Bitterns. The Bittern has a black neck stripe and black primaries.

Song:
A flat, barking Quock!

Distribution:
Breeds from Washington and southern Idaho, east through parts of Canada and Great Lakes to Nova Scotia, and south to southern South America. Winters from Oregon, Utah, lower Ohio Valley, and New England, south to South America.

Habitat:
Found in brackish, saltwater, or freshwater situations in marshes, swamps, and wooded streams, and on shores of lakes, ponds, and lagoons.

Diet:
Feeds opportunistically on fishes, amphibians, and invertebrates; may also eat small mammals and young birds.

Ecology:
Nocturnal/crepuscular, but may sometimes feed by day. Builds nest in trees or bushes. In Idaho, prefers to nest in trees and bushes such as alders, cottonwood, chokecherry, and willows. Nests in small to large colonies. Forages in shallow water for food; may also forage on land. In Idaho, predators include various gulls, Black-billed Magpies, and American Crows. Reproduction has been depressed by pesticide contamination. Some Idaho birds winter in Mexico.

Reproduction:
clutch size varies from 3-5 eggs in northern range, 2-4 eggs in south (southeastern Idaho study reported 3.6 average clutch size). Both sexes incubate eggs; incubation apparently lasts 24-26 days. Young fly at about 42 days, and usually breed at 2-3 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Findholt, S. and C.H. Trost. 1985. Organochlorine pollutants, eggshell thickness, and reproductive success of Black-crowned Hight-Herons in Idaho, 1979. Colonial Waterbirds 8:32-41.

Photo by George Jameson, ©2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Ardea herodias
(Great Blue Heron)

Order: Ciconiiformes
Order Description: Bitterns, Herons, Egrets,and Ibises
Family: Ardeidae
Family Description: Herons, Bitterns, and Egrets

Physical Description:
Size: 42-52" (107-132 cm). A lean, tall gray-blue bird. Back and wings are blue-gray, underparts whitish. Head white with a black stripe ending in black plumes behind the eye. Black and white foreneck and chest end in gray plumes in the breeding adults. Bill thick, yellow, daggerlike. Thighs rufous. It flies with its neck coiled.

Similar Species- Sandhill Crane has a red cap, is heavier, shorter billed and flies with its neck and legs outstretched.

Song:
Generally silent, makes a loud Croak sound when startled or alarmed.

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern Alaska and southern Canada, south to southern Mexico. Winters from southeastern Alaska, central U.S., and southern New England, south to northern South America. Wanders widely outside usual range. Some sub-adults may summer in non-breeding range.

Habitat:
Found on freshwater and brackish marshes, along lakes, rivers, bays, lagoons, ocean beaches, fields, and meadows. In Idaho, species follows major watercourses.

Diet:
Eats fishes, insects, crustaceans, amphibians, reptiles, mice, shrews, and other animals.

Ecology:
Builds nest in tree, sometimes in shrub, rarely on ground. Nests in colonies. Colony size can vary from few pairs to hundreds of pairs; colonies may be displaced by Bald Eagles. In general, individuals are most active just before dawn and at dusk, but Idaho study found herons come and go from colonies regularly, with no peak activity periods. Individuals usually forage while standing in water, but will also forage in fields or drop from air (or perch) into water. May establish feeding territories in winter. Usually solitary when not breeding. In Idaho, some herons are year-round residents while others, especially in northern Idaho, are breeders or transients. Species is most common and widely distributed colonial waterbird in Idaho.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 3- 7 eggs (usually 4), for 25-29 days (Idaho study reported mean colony size at 24.6 birds with 2.2 young/nest). Both parents tend young, which leave nest in 60-90 days, and may first breed at 2 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. 1994. The status and distribution of colonial waterbirds in northern Idaho and selected species in southern Idaho, 1994. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 31pp.

Photos by Ed Dijak,© 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Bubulcus ibis
(Cattle Egret)

Order: Ciconiiformes
Order Description: Bitterns, Herons, Egrets,and Ibises
Family: Ardeidae
Family Description: Herons, Bitterns, and Egrets

Physical Description:
Size 20" (51 cm). A small white heron. resembles the Snowy Egret, but has s shorter, thicker neck and orangish bill and legs. Breeding adults have a buff-orange plumes on mantle, breast and crown. Often stands in a hunched position.

Similar Species- Great Egret is much taller and more slender with longer bill and legs. Legs always black. Snowy Egret has longer, slimmer black bill, yellow feet.

Song:
Makes various croaking sounds on the breeding range.

Distribution:
Breeds from California, southern Idaho, Colorado, and North Dakota, east through parts of southern Canada and northern U.S. to Maine, and south (primarily in coastal lowlands) to South America. Winters throughout much of breeding range.

Habitat:
Found in wet pastures and freshwater and brackish areas, but may also be found in dry fields and garbage dumps.

Diet:
Eats mainly insects and amphibians, but may also eat reptiles and small rodents.

Ecology:
Builds nest in tree with other egrets and ibis. Frequently nests in colonies. In Idaho, shares nesting areas with herons. Often flies in large flocks in morning and evening. Usually feeds on dry or moist ground near cattle or horses, sometimes near farm machinery.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 2- 6 eggs (usually 3-4), for 21-24 days. Young fly short distances at 40 days, and reasonably well at 50 days. May breed at 1 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Bio. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 101pp.

Photos by C. Trost and P.S. Weber,© 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Ardea alba
(Great Egret)

Order: Ciconiiformes
Order Description: Bitterns, Herons, Egrets,and Ibises
Family: Ardeidae
Family Description: Herons, Bitterns, and Egrets

Physical Description:
Size 37-41" (94-104 cm). Body snow white. Breeding adults have back covered in white plumes. Juveniles lack plumes and have a dark tip on their bill. Yellow bill, black legs and feet. Flies with neck kinked, characteristic or herons.

Similar Species- Cattle Egret is smaller, more compact, with shorter bill and legs, thick head. Snowy Egret is smaller with black bill and yellow feet.

Song:
A low croak. Usually silent.

Distribution:
Breeds from southern Oregon and southern Idaho, east (irregularly) through Canadian Priarie Provinces and northeastern U.S., and south to Gulf Coast states, southern New Mexico, coastal Mexico, and southern South America. Winters from southern U.S., south through breeding range to southern South America. Wanders irregularly outside usual range.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, swampy woods, tidal estuaries, lagoons, along streams, lakes, and ponds, and in fields and meadows.

Diet:
Eats mainly fishes, amphibians, snakes, snails, crustaceans, insects, and small mammals.

Ecology:
Builds nest in tree, occasionally in shrub. Nests solitarily or in small to large colonies. Usually forages singly, during daylight, in marshes and shallow water ponds, but may also feed in fields or drop from air (or perch) into water. Arrives back at roost at sunset or at dark. Individuals may gather in groups when not breeding.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 1- 6 eggs (usually 3-4 in northern range, 2-3 in south). Incubation lasts 23-24 days. Young fly at about 42 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 101pp.

Photo by C. Trost, George Jameson, and Ed Dijak,© 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Egretta thula
(Snowy Egret)

Order: Ciconiiformes
Order Description: Bitterns, Herons, Egrets,and Ibises
Family: Ardeidae
Family Description: Herons, Bitterns, and Egrets

Physical Description:
Size: 20-27" (51-69 cm). A medium-sized heron with snow-white body. Black bill and legs with yellow feet. Breeding Adults have long, filamentous plumes down back and tail. Flies with its neck tightly coiled.

Similar Species- Great Egret much taller, black legs and feet and yellow bill. Cattle Egret has yellow-to red-orange bill, thicker head.

Song:
A low croak heard in colony. Also a bubbling wulla-wulla-wulla.

Distribution:
Breeds from northern California, southern Idaho, Kansas, lower Mississippi Valley, and Gulf and Atlantic coasts, south through Mexico to South America. Winters from northern California, southwestern Arizona, Gulf Coast, and South Carolina, south through breeding range. Wanders irregularly outside usual range.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, lagoons, and shallow coastal habitats.

Diet:
Eats small fishes, frogs, lizards, snakes, crustaceans, worms, snails, and insects.

Ecology:
Nests under shrubs, or in trees and bushes, preferably on islands. Usually found in loose groups; frequently roosts communally, and nests in large colonies. Usually forages in shallow water, but may also graze in fields. Species is present in Idaho from mid-April to September. In past, Idaho reproduction has been depressed due to DDT and other pesticide contamination. Predators include gulls, crows, and magpies.

Reproduction:
Female lays eggs usually from April to May or June in northern range. Both sexes incubate 4-5 eggs in northern range, 2-4 in south (in Idaho study, clutch size averaged 3.7). Incubation lasts 18 days or longer. Young leave nest at 20-25 days; may first breed at 1 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Findholt, S. 1984. Organochlorine residues, eggshell thickness, and reproductive success of snowy egrets nesting in Idaho. Condor 86:163-169.

Photo by R. Bennetts,© 2000
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.

Plegadis chihi
(White-faced Ibis)

Order: Ciconiiformes
Order Description: Bitterns, Herons, Egrets,and Ibises
Family: Threskiornithidae
Family Description: Ibises

Physical Description:
Size: 19-26" (48-66 cm). A chestnut-brown wading bird with green and violet glossy tint to underparts. Long legs. Long, decurved bill. Breeding adults have a white ring around the bill and eye, red legs. Immatures and non-breeding adults lack the white face and red color to legs. Flies with neck and legs outstretched.

Similar Species- No similar species in Idaho. Very similar in appearance to the Glossy Ibis which breeds only in eastern North America.

Song:
A low quacking while flying

Distribution:
Breeds locally from central California, eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, and Northern Plains states, south through parts of Gulf Coast states and Mexico to South America. Winters from southern California, southern Texas, and Louisiana, south through lowlands to Guatemala and El Salvador, and generally in breeding range in South America. Wanders outside usual range.

Habitat:
Found mostly in freshwater areas, on marshes, swamps, ponds and rivers. In Idaho, prefers shallow-water areas.

Diet:
Eats crayfish, frogs, fishes, insects, newts, earthworms, and crustaceans.

Ecology:
Builds nest on ground, or in shrub or tree. In Idaho, nests in tule habitat (not known to nest in state prior to 1970). Nesting failure may result from loss of riparian habitat. Typically feeds in freshwater marshes. Some avian predation is known (gulls), but mammalian predation is minimal except during droughts.

Reproduction:
clutch size usually varies from 3-4 eggs. Incubation lasts 21-22 days. In southern Idaho study, clutch size varied from 2.7-4 eggs/nest, and brood size averaged 2.4 young/nest.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 101pp.

Photo by George Jameson, ©2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Cathartes aura
(Turkey Vulture)

Order: (Ciconiiformes*) Falconiformes
Order Description: New World Vultures
Family: Cathartidae
Family Description: Vultures

Species Update:
*Cathartidae species are now officially considered Ciconiiformes. In other words, New World vultures (i.e., Turkey Vulture, Condors, etc.) have been genetically found to be related to storks and not hawks in DNA research on convergent evolution.

Physical Description:
26-32" (66-81 cm). Large, black bird with a red, featherless face and a pale, downcurved bill; yellow feet. In flight, wings show lighter primary feathers.

Similar Species- Black Vulture, Swainson's Hawk, Zone-tailed Hawk

Song:
Occasionally hisses.

Distribution:
Breeds from southern British Columbia, east to southern Manitoba and New England, and south through U.S. and Middle America to South America. Winters mainly from northern California, Arizona, Ohio Valley, and Maryland south to South America.

Habitat:
Found in forested and open situations (more commonly in latter), from lowlands to mountains. In Idaho, occupies broad valley and mountain areas.

Diet:
Eats mainly vertebrate carrion; prefers fresh meat. Sometimes eats ripe or rotten fruits.

Ecology:
Uses scant nest on cliff or standing snag. May roost singly, or in large flocks in trees at night; roosts are often near or over water. In Maryland/Pennsylvania study, average distance between communal roost and feeding site was 8 km. Roosts may be temporary (at food source), seasonal (spring-fall), or permanent. In one study, most individuals left roost 3.5-5 hr after sunrise. Individual may remain at roost up to 2 or more days during rainy weather. Locates food visually, or by odor. Hunts at 60 m, but migrates between 1200-1500 m. Light wing loading permits ease of flight. Species is resistant to botulism.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 2 eggs (usually) for 5-6 wk. Young first fly at about 9 wk. Family may stay together several months after young fledge.

Conservation:

Important References:
AOU Checklist, 1998, 7th Ed..

Additional Information by C. Trost.2000.
Photo by C. Trost, ©1998.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Cygnus buccinator
(Trumpeter Swan)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 60-72" (150-180 cm). A large, pure white swan with long neck, flat head and heavy, all black bill. Swim with neck straight and bill horizontal.

Similar Species- Tundra swan is smaller with a small yellow spot between the eye and the bill. Head rounder, call softer, high-pitched hoo-hoo-hoo given in flight.

Song:
A loud, booming horn-like call on one pitch

Distribution:
Breeds in Alaska, western Canadian provinces, southeastern Oregon, eastern Idaho, Montana, and northwestern Wyoming. Introduced and established in Nevada and southwestern South Dakota. Winters primarily from southern Alaska to Montana, and south to northern California, sometimes Utah, New Mexico, and eastern Colorado.

Habitat:
Breeds primarily in freshwater in emergent vegetation such as reeds or sedges, but occasionally chooses brackish situations. Winters on open ponds, lakes, and sheltered bays and estuaries. In Idaho, breeding occurs on marshes, lakes, and beaver ponds; wintering occurs along shallow, slow-moving waters.

Diet:
Adults feed on aquatic vegetation, but may also graze in fields. Young eat aquatic beetles and crustaceans, and, after 5 wk, aquatic plants. In Idaho, adults feed primarily on water- milfoil and pondweed; existing evidence indicates that preferred winter food is declining.

Ecology:
Builds nest on ground. Forages on, or just under, water surface. Occurs as resident along Yellowstone Park border; migrant, northern populations winter in Harriman State Park and Island Park. Extensive studies have been done in Idaho on wintering and nesting behavior and habitat. High first-year mortality in Tri-state (WY, ID, MT) cygnet population. Low winter flows and cold conditions can negatively impact wintering swans. Several breeding areas in Idaho outside of Fremont Co. are result of transplants.

Reproduction:
clutch size varies from 2-9 eggs, but is usually around 5 (in Idaho study, mean clutch size ranged 3.6-4.4). Both sexes, but mainly the female, incubate eggs. Incubation lasts 33-37 days. Nestlings are precocial, but remain with adults until subsequent spring. Fledging period lasts 100-120 days. In Idaho, productivity of Trumpeter Swans has decreased in last 10 yr, perhaps due to poor cygnet survival.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Gale, R.S., E.O. Garton, and I.J. Ball. 1987. The history, ecology, and management of the Rocky Mountain population of trumpeter swans. Idaho Dept. Fish & Game, Boise. 314pp.

Photos by Luther Goldman,© 2002 and from © Corel Corporation, 1993 - Corel Professional Photo Series # 94000, Yellowstone National Park, #94055.
Design by Ean Harker 1999, 2000, 2001.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Branta canadensis
(Canada Goose)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 22-45" (56-92 cm). The most common goose in North America. Adults have a black head, neck, and bill and white cheek patches. Body gray to brown. Lower belly, upper and lower tail coverts white. Tail and rump black. Great variation in size and neck length between populations.

Similar Species- None in Idaho.

Song:
A deep, loud, musical Ha-Honk! Often made in flight with other Canada Geese.

Distribution:
Breeds from northern Alaska, east to Labrador and Greenland, and south to southeastern Canada, California, Utah, and northern Arkansas. Winters from Alaska and southern Canada, south to Florida, Gulf Coast, and northern Mexico. In North America, many introduced non-migratory populations exist within and outside normal range.

Habitat:
Found in various habitats near water, from temperate regions to tundra. During migration and in winter, found on coastal and freshwater marshes, lakes, rivers, and fields. In Idaho, occurs in variety of habitats, including lakes, reservoirs, rivers, farmlands, and city parks.

Diet:
Grazes on marsh grasses, sprouts of winter wheat in spring, and grains in fall. Eats clover, cattails, bulrushes, algae, pondweed, and other plants. Also eats mollusks and small crustaceans.

Ecology:
Highly social species. Builds nest on ground, usually near water. Feeds in shallows, marshes, and fields. Usually feeds in early morning and late afternoon. May be active day or night during migration. In one study, mean annual survival rate for Rocky Mountain birds banded on neating areas was 53% (immatures) and 64% (adults). Large resident population exist in southern Idaho; during winter, northern migrants are present throughout state. Populations through out state have been enhanced through artificial nest platforms. Species is sometimes considered an agricultural pest. A study initiated by the Idaho Dept. Fish & Game in southwestern Idaho in 1993 is estimating population size and trend and examing factors affecting mortality rates.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 2-11 eggs (usually 5-6), for 25-30 days. Nestlings are precocial. Young are tended by both adults, and remain with adults until next spring. Some individuals begin breeding at 2 yr, most by age 3. May nest early in Idaho to avoid high spring waters.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Krohn, W.B. and E.G. Bizeau. 1980. The Rocky Mountain population of the western Canada goose: its distribution, habitat and management. USDI Fish and Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rpt. Wildl. No. 229. 93pp.

Photos by Gregory Gough and © Corel Corporation, 1993 - Corel Professional Photo Series # 94000, Yellowstone National Park, #94056.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Aix sponsa
(Wood Duck)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 10-21" (43-52 cm). Male is unmistakable, brightly colored with a long, swept-back crest. Neatly striped faced pattern of green, white and dark purple. Throat and breast chestnut. Bold, white, vertical line seperating chestnut breast from buff flanks and bark brown wings and back. Females dark above and lighter brown below. Distinct white eye patch. In flight: stocky build, white belly, dusky wings and long, square tail.

Similar Species- Male distinct. No other freshwater duck has a white eye patch like the female Wood Duck.

Song:
Male gives a clear, hissing whistle which rises in pitch. When distressed, male gives a Whoo-eeek! Female a low Creek!

Distribution:
Breeds from southern British Columbia and Alberta, south to central California and northern Idaho, and throughout most of eastern U.S. and adjacent southern Canada. Winters mostly on Pacific Coast and interior California, north to Kansas, southern Iowa, Ohio Valley, and New England.

Habitat:
Found near woodlands on quiet, inland waters such as wooded swamps, flooded forests, ponds, marshes, and along streams. In Idaho, occupies wooded streams, flooded marshes, and lake margins. Winters on both freshwater and brackish marshes, ponds, streams, and estuaries.

Diet:
Eats seeds and other parts of aquatic plants, nuts (especially acorns), fruits, shrubs, and aquatic and land insects. Young initially eat mainly insects, but may also eath duckweed, and, occasionally, frogs

Ecology:
Builds nest in tree cavity, or may sometimes use cavity left by other species. Forages in shallow water. High annual mortality rate (commonly 50% in adults, higher in young-of-year). In Idaho, species has adapted well to nest boxes (which enhance local populations), is largely absent from southern Idaho (where suitable habitat is lacking), but occurs commonly in northern Idaho during nesting season and migration.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 9-15 eggs (usually 10-12) for 27-37 days. Young first fly at about 9 wk, and are abandoned by parent at 1-2 mo. yearlings may breed, but are often unsuccessful. Female often produces 2 broods/yr in southern range, and 1 (occasionally 2), in north.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Gadwa, G.U. 1977. Experimental transplanting of wild wood duck hens and broods in northern Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 33pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Anas crecca
(Green-winged Teal)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 12.5-15.5" (32-39 cm). The smallest dabbling duck. Male: compact, gray body separated by a vertical white from the pinkish speckled breast. Head chestnut-brown with a green patch around and behind the eye. Cream-colored patch under dark tail. Female is dark gray-brown with buff under-tail. In flight, both sexes show a green speculum on the wing. No other pattern on the top or bottom of wing in flight.

Similar Species- The Cinnamon Teal and Blue- winged Teal have blue or white patches on the upper wings. In flight male Blue-winged Teal shows dark belly. Females of Cinnamon Teal and Blue-winged Teal are larger and longer billed.

Song:
Male gives a series of high, whistle-like Dreeep's. Female, a low quack.

Distribution:
Breeds from north-central Alaska and northwestern and central Canada, south to California, northern New Mexico, northern Great Plains states, Ohio, western New York, Maine, and Nova Scotia. Winters in U.S., south to central Mexico.

Habitat
Found on freshwater ponds, marshes, and shallow edges of lakes. In Idaho, found at low and medium elevations on streams, ponds, irrigation ditches, lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. During migration and in winter, found on shallow, salt or brackish water and along shores.

Diet:
Eats aquatic plants, seeds of sedges, smartweeds, pondweeds, grasses, aquatic insects, mollusks, crustaceans, tadpoles, berries, grapes, and acorns. Will eat waste grain in fall.

Ecology:
Builds well-hidden nest on ground. Dabbles in shallow water, and forages on land.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 7-15 eggs (usually 8-9) for 21-23 days. Male abandons female early in incubation. Female tends nestlings, which are precocial and become independent in about 23 days. Young have fastest growth rate of all North American waterfowl.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by Greg Kearns, ©2002.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Anas platyrhynchos
(Mallard)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 20.5-28" (52-71 cm). This is the largest of North America's dabbling ducks. From fall until the end of breeding season, males have a solid greed head, white collar, reddish-chestnut breast, grayish sides and a black rump. Females are mottled brown with a whitish tail and mottled orange bill. Both sexes have a blue speculum bordered on the top and bottom by white bars

Similar Species- Female mallards and many other dabbling ducks can look similar; however the mallard is the only species with white borders on the top and bottom edge of the speculum.

Song:
The call of the female is a loud waack-waack-waack! The males gives a softer version of this call.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska, Mackenzie Delta, and Maine, south to southern California, Mexico, Oklahoma, and Virginia. Winters from southern Alaska and southern Canada to southern U.S. and Mexico

Habitat:
Found primarily on shallow waters such as streams, ponds, lakes, marshes, and flooded fields. During migration and in winter, found mostly on fresh water and cultivated fields, less commonly in brackish situations.

Diet:
Eats seeds, rootlets, and tubers of aquatic plants, seeds of swamp and river bottom trees, acorns, cultivated grains, insects, mollusks, amphibians, small fishes, and fish eggs. Adults eat mostly vegetable material. Young initially feed primarily on invertebrates.

Ecology:
Dabbles in shallow water; foraging opportunities are optimal where water depth is less than 40 cm. Adapted to dynamic wetland conditions that provide variety of wetland types in relatively close proximity. Adaptable to variety of nest sites, but usually builds nest on ground, near water. May occasionally nest in hallow tree or artificial structures. In study conducted in prarie pothole region, breeding density (2.3-9.5 birds/km2) fluctuated with pond abundance. May attain high nesting density (400 nests/ha) on islands free of mammalian predators. An Idaho study suggested that mammalian and avian (Black-billed Magpies) predators may significantly effect nest success in some wildlife management areas. Many semi-feral populations exist. Most common duck in Idaho, where it resides year-round except at high elevations in winter.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 5-14 eggs (usually 8-10), for 26-30 days. Young first fly at 49-60 days, and first breed at 1 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Gazda, R.J. 1994. Duck productivity and nest predation in southeastern Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Montana, Missoula. 61pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Anas acuta
(Northern Pintail)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: Male 25-29" (64-74 cm), Female 20.5-22.5" (52-57 cm). The adult male pintail has a brown head and white neck with a conspicuous white stripe that runs up onto the side of the brown of the head. Males also have a long, needle- pointed tail. Body grayish with some black on the wings. Females are mottled brown with a slender neck, bluish bill and somewhat pointed tail.

Similar Species- Female Mallards are heavier with a shorter, thicker neck, blue speculum bordered by white. Female Gadwalls have a white speculum.

Song:
Males give a higher Dreeep-eep. Females a low quacking.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaskan tundra, through Canada to western and central United States. Winters from eastern and southeastern coastal U.S., Great Lakes, southeastern Alaska, southwestern British Columbia, and western and southwestern U.S., south to Colombia and Venezuela.

Habitat:
Found on lakes, rivers, marshes, and ponds in grasslands, barrens, dry tundra, and open boreal forests. Also found in cultivated fields. During migration and in winter, found in both freshwater and brackish situations. In Idaho, prefers lowland marshes for feeding and nesting, but may winter on small creeks and reservoirs.

Diet:
Eats various plants and animals, depending on availability. Feeds on seeds and nutlets of aquatic plants (sedges, grasses, pondweeds, smartweeds); also eats mollusks, crabs, minnows, worms, fairy shrimp, aquatic insects, and waste grain. Animal foods are important to females during pre-laying and laying periods. Juveniles eat mostly insects.

Ecology:
Dabbles for food; may also feed in fields and on tidal flats. Builds nest on ground. Northern Alaska study found 0.3- 1.5 nests/km2, in various locations. One to 1.8 nests/km2 found in prairie pothole country. Female and brood may move among different ponds during first few weeks after hatching. Species nests commonly in southeaster Idaho, and sparingly in northern Idaho, but is frequent fall and spring migrant known to winter in many parts of state. An Idaho study suggested that avian (Black-billed Magpies) and mammalian predators may significantly affect nest success in some wildlife management areas.

Reproduction:
clutch size varies depending on age of parents (6-10 eggs for adults, 5-7 for yearlings); adults nest earlier than do yearlings. Female incubates eggs; incubation lasts 21-25 days. Male abandons female early in incubation. precocial nestlings are tended by female, with male usually present. Young fledge in about 6-7 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Gazda, R.J. 1994. Duck productivity and nest predation in southeastern Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Montana, Missoula. 61pp.

Photos by Jeff Spendelow, George Jameson, and C. Trost,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Anas discors
(Blue-winged Teal)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 14.5-16" (37-41 cm). Teal are small-bodied dabbling ducks. Males have a bluish-gray head with a large white crescent before the eye. Body mottled brown above, pinkish with black spots below. Females mottled buff to brown. Both sexes have a large blue patch on the forewing. When on the water, this blue patch can sometimes be seen as a bluish stripe along the side of the body.

Similar Species- Female Blue-winged Teal are almost indistinguishable from female Cinnamon Teal and Green-winged Teal. Female Northern Shovelers have a broader bill and are much larger.

Song:
Call of the male is a high-pitched, single note peep. Females have a high quack.

Distribution:
Breeds from southern Canada, south to southern California, New Mexico, central Texas, Louisiana, and North Carolina. Winters from southern U.S., south to northern South America.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, ponds, sloughs, lakes and sluggish streams. During migration and when not breeding, found in both freshwater and brackish situations (prefers freshwater marshes, ponds, and sloughs, but can also be found in river pools, salt ponds, and estuaries). In Idaho, occupies low- elevation wetlands, but may be seen on higher-elevation lakes during fall migration.

Diet:
Feeds on vegetative parts of aquatic plants (algae, duckweeds, pondweeds, etc.), as well as seeds (sedges, pondweeds, grasses, etc.). Also feeds on large amounts of aquatic invertebrates.

Ecology:
Nests on dry land near water. Usually forms flocks when not breeding. May feed with other dabbling ducks, coots, and shorebirds. Hybridizes occasionally with Cinnamon Teal.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 6-15 eggs (usually 9-11), for 23-27 days. Nestlings are precocial, and tended by female. First flight of young occurs 35-44 days after hatching.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Anas cyanoptera
(Cinnamon Teal)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 14.5-17" (37-43 cm). Teal are small-bodied dabbling ducks. The male Cinnamon Teal are a deep cinnamon to chestnut color on the head, breast, belly and sides. Wings often streaked with darker brown. Female is mottled buff to brown. Both sexes have a large blue patch on the forewing. At rest, this patch can sometimes be seen as a blue stripe along the body.

Similar Species- Female Cinnamon Teal are almost indistinguishable from female Blue-winged and Green-winged Teal. Female Northern Shovelers are larger with a broad bill.

Song:
Courtship call of the male is a high-pitched rattling. Female, a soft quack.

Distribution:
Breeds from southwestern Canada, eastern Montana, and parts of Great Plains and midwestern states, south to northern Mexico. Winters from southwestern U.S., south to southern Mexico, and rarely or casually to parts of South America.

Habitat:
Found on shallow lake margins, reed beds, ponds, lagoons, sluggish streams, and marshes. Found primarily in freshwater, but occasionally in marine situations in winter. In Idaho, occupies ponds, lakes, and streams at middle and lower elevations.

Diet:
Feeds on aquatic plants in shallow water areas, especially on rush and pondweed seeds and leaves, but also on grass seeds. Will also eat small amounts of animal food, especially insects and mollusks.

Ecology:
Dabbles or dips in shallow water to obtain food, Nests in depression on ground, usually in or near marsh. Before breeding season, usually seen in single pairs; in fall, seen in small family groups. An Idaho study suggested that mammalian and avian predators may significantly be affecting nest success in some wildlife management areas.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 9-12 eggs (sometimes 6-14), for 21-25 days. Nestlings are precocial and downy, and are capable of flight in about 7 wk. Nests are often parasitized by other duck species.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Gazda, R.J. 1994. Duck productivity and nest predation in southeastern Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univerisity of Montana, Missoula. 61pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Anas clypeata
(Northern Shoveler)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 17-20" (43-51 cm). The Northern Shoveler is actually a large teal. Easily identified by its broad, spoon-shaped bill and relatively short neck. When swimming, it sits low with its bill angled toward the water. Males have a green head, white breast and chestnut sides. Females are mottled buff to brown. Both sexes have a greenish speculum and bluish patch on the forewing.

Similar Species- Male mallards are larger, have chestnut breast with white belly and narrower bill. Female Blue-winged, Green-winged and Cinnamon Teal are smaller with shorter, narrower bills.

Song:
Males give a rattling call while courting: otherwise silent. Females give a low quack.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska, east to Manitoba, south to California, New Mexico, and Western Indiana, and locally eastward. Winters from southwestern British Columbia to Arizona, east from there to Gulf Coast, coastal Georgia and South Carolina, and south to northern South America. Rarely winters in northern to north-central or northeastern United States.

Habitat:
Found on shallow, often muddy, freshwater areas with surrounding cover, including ponds, marshes, sloughs, and creeks. During migration and in winter, occupies both freshwater and brackish habitats, and (atypically) cultivated fields. In Idaho, prefers potholes, ponds and marshes at lower elevations.

Diet:
Opportunistic forager. Eats seeds of sedges, bulrushes, sawgrass, pondweeds, smartweeds, algae, duckweed, and others. Will also eat mollusks, aquatic insects, and crustaceans. Manitoba study found males and females ate primarily aquatic invertebrates during pre-laying and laying periods. Aquatic invertebrates (e.g., water boatmen) may dominate winter diet in some areas.

Ecology:
Commonly builds nest at water's edge. Usually dabbles at water surface (in Idaho, known to skim aquatic plants and animals off surface). Usually feeds in pairs or small groups. Large concentrations can be seen at migration staging areas. An Idaho study suggested that avian and mammalian predators may significantly affect nest success in some wildlife management areas.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins late March in southern range, to early June in north. Female incubates 6-14 eggs (usually 10- 12), for 23-25 days. Female tends nestlings, which are precocial and downy, and become independent in about 6-7 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Gazda, R.J. 1994. Duck productivity and nest predation in southeastern Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Montana, Missoula. 61pp.

Photo by C. Trost, ©1999 and George Jameson, ©2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Anas strepera
(Gadwall)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 18.5-23" (47-58 cm). A very nondescript dabbling duck. Males grayish brown mottled. Some brown on head and black undertail coverts. Females mottled brown. The key to identification of this species is its white speculum, unique to the Gadwall.

Similar Species- Almost all female ducks look similar to the Gadwall; however, no other duck has a white speculum.

Song:
Male has a series of low rrebb-rrebb notes and various whistles. Females give a soft quack.

Distribution:
Breeds from southern Alaska and southwestern and south-central Canada, south to southern Wisconsin, southern Kansas, northern New Mexico, central California, and locally on parts of East Coast. Winters from southern Alaska to central California, across portions of middle U.S. to central Florida and Gulf Coast, and south into south-central Mexico.

Habitat:
Found on lakes, ponds, rivers, and marshes. Prefers freshwater, but may be found on any open water during migration and winter. Moderate- to large-sized wetlands of permanent or semi-permanent nature, expanses of open water with submerged vegetation, and open, undisturbed shorelines are important molting habitats. In Idaho, occupies marshes, lakes, and reservoirs -- tends to avoid mountainous areas.

Diet:
Feeds on leaves, stems, and tubers of aquatic plants. Also eats algae and seeds of sedges and grasses. Occasionally grazes in pastures and grain fields; may feed on acorns. Eats some small fishes and aquatic invertebrates, which comprise about half spring and summer diet; eats green portions of aquatic plants in non-nesting season. Juveniles initially eat equal amounts of animal and plant food; plant food begins to dominate after 2 wk.

Ecology:
Feeds generally in water 15- 66 cm deep. Builds concealed nest on ground. One study found that few hundred nests/ha are possible on islands lacking mammalian predators. An Idaho study suggested that mammalian and avian predators may significantly affect nest success in some wildlife management areas. Highest breeding densities occur in northern Great Plains and intermountain valleys of western United States. Molting males may form groups of hundreds or thousands in midsummer

Reproduction
Breeding usually begins in mid-April in southern range, early June in north. Female incubates about 9-11 eggs for 4 wk. Female tends young, which fly at 49-63 days. Species breeds later than most other ducks. Relatively high percentage of yearlings do not breed.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Gazda, R.J. 1994. Duck productivity and nest predation in southeastern Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Montana, Missoula. 61pp.

Photo by Greg Kearns, ©2002.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Anas americana
(American Wigeon)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 18-23" (46-58 cm). Males have grayish head with green face stripe and white crown and forehead (hence the nickname Baldplate). Body brownish with wings and back either dark brown or black. Belly white. Females mottled brown with some gray on the head. Both sexes have a blue bill tipped with black. Note the white patch on the forewing; visible in flight. speculum green.

Similar Species- The Eurasian Wigeon is an accidental stray to Idaho. It has a chestnut head with buff crown and forehead. Females can resemble Gadwalls. Gadwall has white speculum, not white forewing.

Song:
Males give a three-parted whistle with the second note higher: whee-whee- whee. Females quack.

Distribution:
Breeds mainly from Alaska, east to Manitoba, and south to northeastern California, northern Nevada, northern Colorado, and portions of Great Plains states. Winters mainly from southern Alaska to Mexico, central U.S. to southern Great Lakes and Ohio Valley, and Nova Scotia south coastally to Gulf Coast.

Habitat:
Generally found on large marshes and lakes. When not breeding, occupies both freshwater and brackish areas and forages on marsh edges, sloughs and sheltered bays. In Idaho, usually inhabits low- elevation lakes, marshes and reservoirs, but may be found on higher-elevation waters during fall migration.

Diet:
Feeds on leaves, stems, buds, and some seeds of pondweeds, wigeon grass, grasses, and sedges. May also eat some snails, beetles, and crickets.

Ecology:
Builds concealed nest, not necessarily near water. Forages in shallow water and grazes in fields; may damage cultivated crops. In Idaho, known to graze in fields and forage in flooded fields.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins in early May in southern range, to early June in north. clutch size varies from 6-12 eggs, but is usually 9-11. Female incubates eggs (incubation lasts from 22-24 days) and tends young, which become independent in about 6-7 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photos by Luther Goldman,©2002 and C. Trost,©2000
Design by Ean Harker 1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Aythya valisineria
(Canvasback)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
Size: 19.5 to 24" (50-61 cm). One of the largest diving ducks. Males have a chestnut-red head and neck. Breast and tail black. Mid body whitish. Female grayish with a brown breast. Bill on both sexes black, long and sloping from the forehead. The shape of the head, more pointed with a shallow sloping forehead, is distinctive to the Canvasback.

Similar Species- Redheads are commonly confused with Canvasbacks. Male Redheads have rounded heads and shorter bills. The chestnut on a Redhead does not extend as far down the neck. Redheads are also not as white as Canvasbacks. Red-breasted and Common Mergansers have a long, thin, orange bills and crested heads.

Song:
Male gives a cooing sound during courting. Female quacks.

Distribution:
Breeds from central Alaska and northwestern Canada, south to northern California, and locally in inland areas to western Nevada, northern Utah, northern Colorado, central New Mexico, and parts of Midwest. Winters along Pacific Coast from Alaska to Baja California, and east through parts of Midwest to Great Lakes; also winters along East Coast from New England to Florida, and west along Gulf Coast to Mexico. Nests primarily in southeastern Idaho.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, ponds, lakes, rivers and bays. Winters on deep, freshwater lakes and rivers as well as on sheltered bays and estuaries. In Idaho, associated with large rivers, lakes and reservoirs.

Diet:
Feeds on aqautic plants such as pondweeds, wild celery, water lilies, seeds of grasses, wild rice, sedges, arrowhead, and bulrushes. Rhizomes, tubers, and seeds figure prominently in winter diet. Will also eat some animal food such as mollusks, aquatic insects, and small fishes.

Ecology:
Dives underwater to obtain food. Builds concealed, cup-shaped nest over water. In some areas, nests are commonly parasitized by Redhead.

Reproduction
clutch size varies from 7-12 eggs (usually 9-10). Female incubates eggs and tends young; incubation lasts 23-29 days. Nestlings are precocial and downy. Young first fly at 10-12 wk. Females are philopatric (returning to same site) to breeding areas.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photos by C. S. Robbins, ©2002 and C. Trost,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Aythya americana
(Redhead Duck)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
18-22" (26-56 cm). Cinnamon-red head and eye with black-tipped grayish blue bill. Dark gray to black breast and lighter gray wings, flanks, and back. Black under tail. Females uniformly dark brown with lighter, chestnut head and paler belly; pale eye ring.

Similar Species- Canvasback, female scaups

Song:
Deep, slurred quack: qwar-qwarq-qwar-qwarq.

Distribution:
Breeds locally in Alaska, east from there through parts of Canada to Minnesota, and south to parts of Southwest and Midwest; also breeds sporadically in portions of eastern states. Winters from southern British Columbia south to Nevada, northern Arizona, and parts of Midwest, and on East Coast from New England south to Mexico and Guatemala.

Habitat:
Found on large marshes, lakes, lagoons, rivers and bays. Winters mostly on brackish and marine lagoons and bays, less frequently in inland freshwater situations. In Idaho, prefers marshy ponds, lakes, and potholes, except in winter, when it uses deep, open water.

Diet:
Feeds on leaves and stems of aquatic plants. Eats pondweeds, wigeon grass, algae, and seeds of sedges and grasses. Will eat some insects, mollusks, and small crustaceans. North Dakota study found breeding individuals ate 51-70% invertebrates (mostly chironomids) and 30-49% plant matter; seeds of shallow-marsh emergent plants were important in diet of females during a wet year.

Ecology:
Dives from water surface to obtain food. Builds concealed, cup-shaped nest over shallow water.

Reproduction:
In general, breeding begins in late April in southern range, and early June in inorth. clutch size varies from 10- 16 eggs. Female incubates eggs (incubation lasts 24-28 days) and tends young, which are precocial and downy. Young can fly at 56-73 days. Species often parasitizes other waterfowl nests.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photos by Fred Fallon and C. S. Robbins, ©2002.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Aythya collaris
(Ring-necked Duck)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
14 1/2-18" (37-46 cm). Black above, including breast, tail, and peaked head with red eyes. White rings at base and near end of a black bill. White below, including flanks. Females dark brown with darker back and black bill with one white ring near end; pale eye ring.

Similar Species- Tufted Duck, female scaups

Song:
Barked qua-qua-qua-qua-qua-qua.

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern and east-central Alaska and central British Columbia, east through Saskatchewan to Newfoundland, and south to northeastern California, southeastern Arizona, southern Colorado, and parts of the Midwest to New York. Winters from southeastern Alaska and Massachusetts, south through southwestern U.S. and Mexico to Panama.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, lakes, rivers, and swamps, especially in wooded areas. Winters primarily in freshwater and brackish situations on larger lakes, rivers, and estuaries; prefers deep, open water. In Idaho, prefers shallow forested ponds and lakes for breeding, and large rivers and reservoirs during winter.

Diet:
Plant material, such as tubers, leaves, rootstocks, and seeds of aquatic plants, is important part of diet. Also eats aquatic invertebrates, especially in summer. Downy young eat insects, snails, sponges, seeds, and other plant material.

Ecology:
Builds nest in dry spot on ground near water, or sometimes on dry site over water. Dives from water surface to obtain food from as far as 12 m underwater. Most active in early morning and evening; sleeps by day near emergent vegetation by shorelines.

Reproduction:
clutch size varies from 6-14 eggs (usually 8-10). Female incubates eggs (25-29 days), and tends young, which are precocial and downy, and fly about 49 days after hatching.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Aythya affinis
(Lesser Scaup)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
15-18 1/2" (38-47 cm). Dark brown breast, rump, tail, and head with yellow eyes; bluish gray bill with black tip. Gray scaled back; white flanks. Females have brown mottled flanks, brown breast, and white facial patch at base of bill.

Similar Species- Greater Scaup, Ring-necked Duck

Song:
Easily remembered as repeatedly calling: scaup.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska and parts of Canada, south to northern Idaho, northern Wyoming, northern North Dakota, and Minnesota, and casually or irregularly to western Washington, northeastern California, southern Idaho, northeastern Colorado, and parts of Midwest. Winters from southern Alaska, east to New England, and south through southern Idaho, Utah, northeastern Colorado, parts of Midwest, and southern U.S., to northern Colombia.

Habitat:
During migration and when not breeding, found along coast in sheltered bays, estuaries, and marshes, or inland on lakes, ponds, and rivers; found on saltwater especially if lakes and ponds are frozen. In southern winter range, prefers freshwater ponds, lakes, and sloughs with reasonably clear water 1 m or more deep.

Diet:
Diet consists of about equal amounts of plant and animal food. Feeds on seeds of pondweeds, wigeon grass, wild rice, sedges, and bulrushes. Also eats crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic insects.

Ecology:
Feeds mostly in freshwater 1-2 m deep. Builds nest on ground, close to water; occasionally nests over water. In Idaho, prefers marshes for nesting, and open reservoirs and large rivers during migration and in winter.

Reproduction:
Egg-laying begins early May in sourthern range, to mid-June in north. clutch size varies from 6-15 eggs, but is usually 9-12 (older females lay largest clutches). Female incubates eggs (incubation lasts 22-27 days) and tends young. A variable percentage of yearling females do not breed.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by Luther Goldman,© 2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Histrionicus histrionicus
(Harlequin Duck)

Link to phot provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
14 1/2-21" (37-53 cm). Intricate pattern of white, gray, black, and cinnamon. Head has a black stripe from bill to back of neck; two white stripes on either side of black stripe descending to base of bill with a splash; third stripe is cinnamon above a dark gray cheek; cheek has white ear patch and a white vertical stripe on side of neck; gray bill. Gray breast has two vertical white stripes edged with black. Back and wings are gray. Cinnamon flanks. Females are a mixture of gray and brown with white ear patches.

Similar Species- Female Bufflehead

Song:
A toy bugle-like awa-awaa.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska and western Canada, south to eastern Oregon, east-central California, Idaho, and Wyoming; also breeds in eastern Canada. Winters from Aleutian and Pribilof islands, south to central California; also winters from Maritime Provinces south to Maryland.

Habitat:
Winters in rough, coastal waters, especially along rocky shores. In Idaho, breeds on forested mountain streams of relatively low gradient free of human disturbance.

Diet:
Feeds primarily on crustaceans, mollusks, insects, and a few small fishes (98% of diet consists of animal food).

Ecology:
In Idaho, hens nest in cliff cavities, tree cavities, and on ground. Breeding pairs show strong fidelity to breeding streams year after year. Preliminary study data indicate some Idaho birds migrate to San Juan Islands, WA, in winter. Birds migrate to Idaho from Pacific Coast in April and females return to coast in August or September with males returning earlier. Entire Idaho population is less than 100 birds on about 30 streams in northern Idaho.

Reproduction:
clutch size varies from 5-10 eggs (usually 6-8). Female incubates eggs (about 27-32 days) and tends young, which are precocial and downy, fly in 5-6 wk, and apparently breed at 2 yr. Idaho study found mean brood size to be 3.4 young/brood.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Cassirer, E.F., C.R. Groves, and R.L. Wallen. 1991. Distribution and population status of Harlequin Ducks in Idaho. Wilson Bull. 103:723-725.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Bucephala clangula
(Common Goldeneye)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
16-20" (41-51 cm). Male has glossy, dark green head with round white patch near base of bill; black back and tail; neck, breast, and sides white; white areas on wings and back visible in flight. Females' plumage is gray with darker gray wings and tail; brown head; bill dark with small pale yellow patch near tip.

Similar Species- Barrow's Goldeneye, female mergansers, male Bufflehead

Song:
Courting call of male is a double nasal quaa-quaak. Wings whistle in flight.

Distribution:
Breeds in Alaska, across parts of Canada, and south to northern Washington, central Montana, and across northern U.S. to Maine. Winters from southeastern Alaska to southern California, from Great Lakes to Gulf Coast, and from Newfoundland to Florida.

Habitat:
Found on ponds, lakes, rivers, and coastal bays, wintering primarily on bays and estuaries, less commonly on rivers and lakes. In Idaho, normally associated with water bodies near forests; prefers deep, open waters of large rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.

Diet:
In inland areas during summer and fall, feeds on aquatic insects, crustaceans, and aquatic plants. Along coastal wintering grounds, feeds largely on crustaceans, mollusks, small fishes, and some plant material.

Ecology:
Builds nest in tree cavity near water. Dives under water to obtain food.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins early May in southern range, to June in north. clutch size varies from 5-19 eggs (usually 8-12). Female incubates eggs and tends young; incubation lasts 28-32 days. Nestlings are precocial and downy, and fly at 51-60 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Bucephala islandica
(Barrow's Goldeneye)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
16 1/2-20" (42-51 cm). White crescent in front of eye on a glossy purple-black head; low, abrupt forehead sloping down to a black bill; back and sides black; neck and breast white; wings black with a line of white patches. Female has a brown head, grayish body and wings, white collar, and yellow bill with a dark tip.

Similar Species- Common Goldeneye

Song:
Rapid whinny produced by wings in flight.

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern Alaska, east through parts of western Canada, and south to eastern Washington, southwestern Oregon, eastern California, northern Montana, and northwestern Wyoming. Also breeds in eastern Canada. Winters from southern Alaska, south along coast to central California, and locally from southern British Columbia and northern Montana, south to southwestern Arizona, Utah and Colorado. Also winters along East Coast.

Habitat:
Winters on lakes, rivers, estuaries, and bays. Frequently winters along Snake River in southern Idaho. In central Idaho, prefers mountain lakes for breeding.

Diet:
In inland areas during summer and fall, feeds on aquatic insects, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Along coastal wintering grounds, feeds largely on crustaceans, mollusks, small fishes, and some plant material.

Ecology:
Nests in tree cavity near water; may nest on cliff. Intraspecific nest parasitism is common. Dives underwater to obtain food. Usually found in small, scattered groups in summer; found in large flocks in winter. Uncommon breeder in Idaho.

Reproduction:
clutch size varies from 6-15 eggs (usually 10-13). Female incubates eggs; incubation lasts about 30 days. In British Columbia, mean hatching date is mid- to late June. Nestlings are precocial and downy. Adult pair bond may last more than 1 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Schultz, G.A. 1978. Barrow's Goldeneyes nesting in central Idaho. Murrelet 59:107- 108.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Bucephala albeola
(Bufflehead)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
13-15 1/2" (33-39 cm). Black above and white below with a gray bill. White patch from behind eye to back of head; white wing patches visible in flight. Females brown above and gray below; whitish breast and elongated white patch on face.

Similar Species- Male Hooded Merganser, male goldeneyes, female Harlequin Duck

Song:
Hoarse, crow-like qua-qua.

Distribution:
Breeds from central Alaska and parts of western Canada, south to northern Washington, and east to northern Montana; also breeds (locally) south to mountains of Oregon and northern California. Winters from Alaska, Great Lakes, and Maritime Provinces, south to Mexico and Gulf Coast.

Habitat:
Found on lakes, ponds, rivers, and seacoasts. Winters on sheltered bays and estuaries. In Idaho, occupies ponds, lakes, rivers, and reservoirs; winters on larger bodies of open water.

Diet:
In freshwater, feeds on aquatic insects, snails, amphipods, small fishes, and some aquatic plants. In saltwater, eats crustaceans, mollusks, fishes, and some aquatic plants.

Ecology:
Dives underwater to obtain food. Nests in tree near water, either in natural cavity or in cavity made by flicker or woodpecker. Will also nest in burrow in bank. Female strongly defends brood territory. British Columbia study found that breeding density was not limited by nest sites, but rather by territorial behavior. Usually seen in small groups (2-3 individuals). Usually migrates at night. Breeds uncommonly on mountain lakes in Idaho.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins mid- May in southern range, to early June in north. clutch size varies from 6-11 eggs (usually 7-9). Incubation lasts 28-33 days; female incubates eggs and tends young, which fly 50-55 days after hatching and breed at 2 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photos by C. Trost,© 1998 and George Jameson, ©2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Lophodytes cucullatus
(Hooded Merganser)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
16-19" (40-48 cm). Male has black head with contrasting white crest with black hind border; yellow eyes. Shiny black back; white breast with two broad black lines; cinnamon-colored flanks and belly; bill dark and thin. Female is chestnut brown with darker wings and a lighter belly; rust-colored crest.

Similar Species- Male Bufflehead

Song:
Courting male gives a frog-like croak.

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern Alaska and southwestern Canada, south to southwestern Oregon, eastern Idaho, and northwestern Montana. Also breeds in eastern U.S. and eastern Canada. Winters along Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf slopes.

Habitat:
Found on streams, lakes, swamps, marshes, and estuaries. Winters mostly in freshwater, but can also be found on estuaries and sheltered bays. In Idaho, prefers wooded streams and flooded bottomlands during summer, and open bodies of water in winter.

Diet:
Eats mostly small fishes, crayfishes, and other crustaceans, but may also eat aquatic insects.

Ecology:
Dives underwater to obtain food. Nests in cavity in tree. Limited breeding occurs in northern Idaho and along Snake River in southeast. Usually seen during fall and spring migration and in winter. Similar to Wood Duck in habitat use.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 6-18 eggs for 29-37 days. In some areas, nests may include eggs of Wood Duck or Goldeneye. Young first fly at about 10 wk, and first breed at abou 2 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by George Jameson, ©2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Mergus merganser
(Common Merganser)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
22-27" (56-69 cm). Male has glossy green-black head with a orange-red bill; black back and wings; white below. White is visible on sides and inner wings in flight. Females have brownish-red head with crest and gray back and wings.

Similar Species- Male Red-breasted Merganser

Song:
Repeated croaking sounds.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska and Canada, south to central California, Arizona, and Mexico. Also breeds in northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada. Winters from Alaska and southern Canada, south to Mexico and Florida.

Habitat:
Found mostly on lakes and rivers; winters primarily on open lakes and rivers and brackish lagoons, rarely in marine coastal situations. In Idaho, breeds on forest watercourses, and winters on Snake River and larger reservoirs in southern part of state.

Diet:
Eats mainly fishes, but will also eat amphibians, crustaceans, mollusks, and other invertebrates. Young initially feed on insects caught underwater.

Ecology:
Dives under water surface to obtain food. Usually nests in cavity in tree, but will occasionally nest on ground, around shrubs or under rocks.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 6-17 eggs (usually 9-12), for 28-32 days. Young first fly at 60-70 days, and breed at end of second year.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by Greg Kearns, ©2002.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Oxyura jamaicensis
(Ruddy Duck)

Order: Anseriformes
Order Description: Swans, Geese, Ducks
Family: Anatidae
Family Description: Swans, Geese and Ducks

Physical Description:
14 1/2-16" (37-41 cm). Males have a large blue bill on a black and white head; body is chestnut with a white belly. Females are drab brown with large brown bill and a darkish cap. Both have long tails.

Similar Species- Pied-billed Grebe

Song:
A sputtering pwip-pwip-pwip-pwip-pwip-p-p-p.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska (casually) and parts of Canada, south to southern California, central Arizona, southern New Mexico, western and southern Texas, and southwestern Louisiana. Scattered, sporadic, or former breeding located in several other areas in U.S., Canada, and Mexico. Winters from southern British Columbia, Idaho, Colorado, Kansas, Great Lakes, and Atlantic Coast, south throughout southern U.S., most of Mexico, and South America.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, lakes and coastal areas. When not breeding, found on sheltered, brackish and marine coastal areas, as well as on lakes and rivers.

Diet:
Diet varies with age, season, and site. Eats pondweeds, algae, wild celery, seeds of sedges, smartweeds, grasses, insects and their larvae, and shellfish and crustaceans.

Ecology:
Dives under water surface to obtain food. Basically diurnal, but appears to migrate mostly at night. Nests over or close to water (preferably shallow water with emergent vegetation).

Reproduction:
Female incubates 6-10 eggs (sometimes 5-17), for about 23 days. Male often accompanies female and brood. Often parasitizes Redhead and Canvasback nests.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Aquila chrysaetos
(Golden Eagle)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
30-41" (75-104 cm). Dark eagle with golden accents on back of neck that occasionally continue around the face onto the breast. White band on upper tail feathers; white flash in wings at base of the primaries. Yellow feet; gray bill. Immatures have white on tail that ends with a dark bar. Immatures have a distinct white patch at the base of the primaries underneath, and a white base to the tail.

Similar Species- Immature Bald Eagles, Black Vulture, black morph of Rough-legged Hawk

Song:
A yelped kyarp-- kyarp-kyarp.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska, east through Northwest Territories to Labrador, and south to northern Mexico, central Texas, western Oklahoma, and western Kansas. Also breeds rarely in eastern U.S. to New England. Winters from south-central Alaska and southern Canada, south through breeding range.

Habitat:
Found on prairies, tundra, open wooded country, and barren areas, especially in hilly or mountainous regions. In Idaho, prefers open and semi-open areas in both deserts and mountains.

Diet:
Feeds mainly on small mammals, but may also eat insects, snakes, birds, juvenile ungulates, and carrion. Jack rabbits are principal prey in southern Idaho, and this preference is unaffected by changes in prey density.

Ecology:
Builds stick nest on cliff or in tree. Commonly forages in early morning and early evening. Idaho study indicated males capture more food during brood rearing, while females spend more time feeding offspring. Territory size averaged 3276 ha. Positive correlation between breeding success and jackrabbit numbers reported in Idaho, Colorado, and Utah. Species resides in Idaho year-round, although recent studies have revealed some winter birds are breeders from Alaska and Northwest Territories.

Reproduction:
Egg-laying occurs from February-May, depending on range (late February to early March in Utah). Female (usually) incubates 1-3 eggs (rarely 4, usually 2) for about 43-45 days. In southwestern Idaho, numbers fledged/pair has ranged from .39-1.36 over last 20 yr. Young can fly at 60-77 days (longer in far north than in south) and are cared for by parents for 30+ additional days (family unit will sometimes remain together several months). Breeding typically takes place in fourth or fifth year. Lifelong monogamy may be the rule, though some apparent exceptions have been recorded.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Collopy, M.S. 1984. Parental care and feeding ecology of golden eagle nestlings. Auk 101:753-760.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Haliaeetus leucocephalus
(Bald Eagle)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
30-43" (76-109 cm). Distinct white head and neck with a yellow bill. White tail, but otherwise dark brown to black; yellow feet and eyes, which adults take up to 4 years to achieve. The juveniles are dark brown with blotchy white patches under wings and tail, and with huge bill.

Similar Species- Golden Eagle

Song:
Fairly soft pwip-pwip and a faster chitter.

Distribution:
Breeds from central Alaska, east to northern Saskatchewan, Labrador, and Newfoundland, and south, locally, to northern Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas Gulf Coast, and Florida;very local breeder in interior North America. Winters generally throughout breeding range except in far north.

Habitat:
Found primarily near seacoasts, rivers, and reservoirs and lakes.

Diet:

Catches fish (or steals from osprey); also eats various mammals and carrion. Idaho diet includes fish, big game carrion, waterfowl, and jackrabbits.

Ecology
Forages from high altitudes; often forages from perch. Builds stick nest in fork of tall tree, or occasionally on cliff. In winter, adults often roost communally at night, in trees used in successive years. In winter in some areas, adults preferentially roost in conifers, or other sheltered sites, and may associate with waterfowl concentrations, or congregate in areas with abundant dead fish (in Idaho, individuals congregate in numbers on watercourses in northern, eastern, and southwestern parts of state). Montana study determined introduction of shrimp (Mysis relicta) had cascading effect through food chain, ultimately causing displacement of Bald Eagles. North-central Arizona study found February-April home ranges of immatures averaged 400 km2; birds moved frequently and roosted singly or in small groups. Home ranges of Bald Eagles nesting along Cascade Reservoir in west-central Idaho have ranged from 15-60 km2 during breeding season, and have typically been half that size at other times (management recommendations suggest 400 m buffer zone around nest sites to protect key habitat features such as nests, perch trees and food resources). From 1979- 1995, Idaho's nesting Bald Eagle population increased from 11 to 77 occupied territories. In 1995, 51 pairs from occupied territories successfully fledged an average of 1.2 young/pr.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 1- 3 eggs (usually 2) for about 5 wk. Second-hatched young sometimes dies. Young first fly at 10-12.5 wk, remain around nest for several more weeks, and generally do not breed until about 5-6 yr. Adults may not lay every year.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Beals, J., and W. Melquist. 1995. Idaho bald eagle nesting report, 1995. Idaho Dept. Fish & Game, Boise. 23pp.

Photos by P.S. Weber, ©2002 and from © Corel Corporation, 1993 - Corel Professional Photo Series # 94000, Yellowstone National Park, #94099.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Circus cyaneus
(Northern Harrier)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
18-22" (46-55 cm). Male: Gray above, white below. Black wing tips; white rump; brown spotting below; light edging on feathers above. Female: Brown above, buff below; heavy dark barring on breast; streaking on head and face. Long tail on both sexes.

Similar Species- Turkey Vulture; which also has a dihedral to its wings ("V"-shaped in flight). Swainson's Hawk; which has more pointed wings and a dihedral in their soar.

Song:
Nasal, "baby toy" squeak.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska, east to Quebec, and south to Baja California, southern Texas, southern Missouri, West Virginia, and southeastern Virginia. Winters from southern Canada to northern South America.

Habitat:
Found on marshes, meadows, grasslands, and cultivated fields. In Idaho, associated with deserts, marshes and irrigated agriculture; avoids forested areas.

Diet:
Eats small mammals (especially voles and cotton rats), small and medium-size birds (especially passerines), and some reptiles, amphibians, large insects, and carrion.

Ecology:
Nests on ground. Perches on ground, or on stumps or posts. Hunts mostly in early morning and late afternoon in some areas, but may hunt throughout day. Usually flies low when hunting; captures prey on ground. In winter, throughout range, individuals may aggregate in communal roosts in areas of high prey density, and may hunt in same area for several consecutive days. Roosts in winter in undisturbed fields or marshes. In southwestern Idaho study, male and female home ranges were 15.7 km2 and 1.13 km2, respectively. Males hunted up to 9.5 km from nests for voles and whiptail lizards.

Reproduction:
clutch size usually varies from 3-6 eggs. Female incubates eggs for about 30-32 days; male brings food. Young fly at about 30-35 days, and usually breed at 2+ yr. Some males are polygynous. Number of breeders and clutch size may increase when prey is abundant.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Martin, J.W. 1987. Behavior and habitat use of breeding Northern Harriers in southwestern Idaho. J. Raptor Res. 21:57-66.

Photo by George Jameson, ©2002 and Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Accipiter striatus
(Sharp-shinned Hawk)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
10-14" (25-36 cm). Notice the square, not round, tail; often notched. Adults are slate blue above, white below with rich rusty cross-barring. Undertail coverts white. Eyes red. The juveniles are brown on the back, with a few white spots, the breast is white and streaked with brown, and the eyes are yellow.

Similar Species- Cooper's Hawk, Northern Goshawk

Song:
A shrill alarm call; females have a lower pitched call than males.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska, east to Saskatchewan, Labrador, and Newfoundland, and south to South America. Winters (casually) north to southern Alaska and southern Canada, and south to Panama.

Habitat:
Found in forests and open woodlands (coniferous, mixed, or deciduous, but primarily coniferous in more northern and mountainous portions of range). Migrates through various habitats, mainly along ridges, lakeshores, and coastlines.

Diet:
Eats mainly small- to medium-size birds, but will occasionally eat small mammals, insects, and lizards.

Ecology:
Builds stick nest in coniferous or deciduous tree. Oregon study found average distance between nests was 4.3 km. Captures prey in mid-air, or takes prey from its perch. Species is extensive migrant in fall in Idaho, occupying urban areas with abundant prey (primarily House Sparrows). Individual members are occasionally killed by larger raptors; species has suffered from pesticide contamination.

Reproduction
Female incubates 4-5 eggs for 30-32 days (34-35 days has also been reported); male brings food. Young fledge at 3-4.5 wk, are independent at about 7 wk, and first breed at 2 yr (sometimes as yearlings).

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Accipiter cooperii
(Cooper's Hawk)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
14-20" (36-51 cm). Notice the rounded, not square, tail. Adult males are slate blue above, rusty barred below. Adult females are larger and brownish-blue above. Both have a darker cap, white undertail coverts, and red eyes. Juveniles are brown backed with a white breast and brown streaks on it. The eyes are yellow.

Similar Species- Sharp-shinned, and Cooper's Hawks, Northern Goshawk

Song:
Woodpecker-like kak-kak-kak-kak.

Distribution:
Breeds from southern British Columbia, east to central Saskatchewan and Nova Scotia, and south to northern Mexico and southeastern United States. Winters from Washington, Colorado, southern Minnesota, southern Ontario, and New England, south to Middle America.

Habitat:
Primarily found in mature forests (either deciduous or coniferous, but mostly the former); also found in open woodlands and forest edges. Migrates mostly along ridges and coastlines. In Idaho, nests in coniferous and deciduous forests (especially along riparian corridors), and occupies edges and more open habitat when not breeding.

Diet:
Eats mainly medium- size birds such as starlings, thrushes, and quail. Will also eat some birds up to size of adult Ruffed Grouse, small birds, small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.

Ecology:
Secretive. Typically hunts from inconspicuous perch. Sometimes attracted to birds at feeders. Builds stick nest in coniferous or deciduous tree. In various areas, nesting density has been measured at 1 nest/730-2300 ha; nests are usually not closer than 1 km apart. Individuals maintain small territory centered on nest site. Annual mortality has been measured at about 80% in immatures, and 34% in adults. Idaho population is partially migratory -- pushed into lower elevations and into southern Idaho during winter.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 4-5 eggs for about 5 wk; male brings food. Young leave nest at 4-5 wk, return to nest for food for about 10 days, become independent at about 8 wk, and first breed at 2 yr (occasionally at 1 yr.)

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Accipiter gentilis
(Northern Goshawk)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
20-26" (50-66 cm). Gray all over; lighter below with fine black streaks on breast. White tips on longish tail; lighter eyebrows. Red eyes and yellow-orange feet. Immatures brown above, paler below with heavy brown streaks; yellow eyes and feet; tail has wavy blackish and gray bands. Juveniles have a white eyeline.

Similar Species- Cooper's, and Sharp-shinned hawks, Gyrfalcon

Song:
Seagull-like kak-kak-kak-kak.

Distribution:
Breeds from western and central Alaska, east to northeastern Manitoba, Labrador, and Newfoundland, and south to central California, southeastern Arizona, eastern foothills of Rockies, southern Manitoba, New England, and Appalachians; breeds locally in Mexico. Winters throughout breeding range and irregularly south to northern Mexico.

Habitat:
Found in deciduous and coniferous forests, along forest edges, and in open woodlands. Will forage in cultivated regions. Migrates mostly along ridges and coastlines. In Idaho, summers and nests in coniferous and aspen forests; winters in riparian and agricultural areas.

Diet:
Eats mainly rabbits, squirrels, ducks, and upland game birds; local diet depends partly on availability.

Ecology:
Builds stick nest in coniferous or deciduous tree. Nests are usually 2 km or more apart, but may be as close as 0.8 km. Tends to hunt low in forest canopy; most hunting is conducted from perch. From 1980-1990, 34 goshawk territories were identified on Targhee National Forest. Nests were in dense stands of old-growth coniferous timber with high canopy cover. Timber harvest activities may be negatively affecting occupancy rates of goshawks.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 2-4 eggs for 32-34 days/egg; male provides food. Young leave nest at 5-6 wk, begin hunting at about 50 days, and become independent at about 70 days. Some individuals breed as yearlings.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Patla, S. 1991. Northern Goshawk monitoring project report #2. USDA Targhee National Forest, St. Anthony. 42 pp.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Buteo swainsoni
(Swainson's Hawk)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
19-22" (48-56 cm). Dark brown above with reddish hood, white throat and body accentuated by a dark bib-like band across breast. Darker gray flight feathers highlight buffy wing linings. Indistinctly striped tail gray above often becoming white at the base, light below with dark border. They are frequently found in dark morphs, which don't have the white breast and belly. Also, the leading edge of the wings in both morphs is usually white, in contrast to that of Red-tails.

Similar Species- Red-tailed, Rough-legged, and Ferruginous hawks

Song:
Shrill, monotone skreeeeee, also a shorter descending scream that trails off at the end.

Distribution:
Breeds in portions of Alaska and western Canada, east to Minnesota and Illinois, and south to southern California, parts of Mexico, Texas, and Missouri; eastern breeding limits are unstable, Winters from southwestern U.S. and southeastern Florida (irregularly), south to South America.

Habitat:
Found in open pine/oak woodlands, and in cultivated land with scattered trees (e.g., alfalfa and other hay crops, and certain grain and row crops, but not vineyards, orchards, rice, or corn). During migration and in winter, also found in grasslands and other open country. In Idaho, prefers to nest in trees or shrubs near riparian zones adjacent to agricultural lands.

Diet:
Vertebrates (mainly mammals such as young ground squirrels and pocket gophers) dominate diet during breeding season; invertebrates (especially crickets and grasshoppers) are common food at other times. Depending on availability, individuals also eat snakes, lizards, birds, amphibians, and some carrion. Concentrations of Swainson's Hawks foraging on grasshoppers have been documented in Idaho.

Ecology:
Hunts while soaring or from perch. Builds stick nest in tree, or occasionally on cliff. nesting density in suitable habitat varies from 0.1-1.6 nests/10 km2; nests average 1.4-2.4 km apart. May form pre- migratory aggregations in summer and migrate in immense flocks. Migrants may roost at night on ground in very large fields, and go without feeding during most of migration (with occasional feeding during initial and terminal stages). In Idaho, species is highly migratory (present between April and September and winters in Argentina). A 1985 survey in southern Idaho located 109 occupied nests and indicated that Swainson's Hawks were still a widespread common nester in state.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 2-3 eggs for 34-35 days/egg (laid April-May in Oregon, mainly May-June in Canada). Both adults tend young (Idaho study reported 1.17 young/nest). Young leave nest in about 30 days, fly at 42-44 days, depend on parents for 4-4.5 wk after fledging, and first breed at 2 yrs.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Bechard, M.J., K.D. Hague-Bechard, and D.H. Porter. 1986. Historical and current distributions of Swainson's and Ferruginous Hawks in southern Idaho. Dept. Biology, Boise St. Univ., Boise. 58pp.

Photos by George Jameson, ©2002 and C. Trost, ©1999.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Buteo jamaicensis
(Red-tailed Hawk)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
19-25" (48-64 cm). Dark brown above; lighter below with dark band of streaks across the belly. Red on tail as name suggests; lighter rump.

Similar Species- Swainson's, Rough-legged, Ferruginous, and Red-shouldered hawks.

Song:
A down-slurred scream: keeeer.

Distribution:
Breeds from parts of Alaska and parts of western and southern Canada, south to Baja California, northern Mexico, southern Texas, Gulf coast, and Florida, and south from there through highlands of Middle America to Coasta Rica and western Panama. Winters from southern Canada, south through remainder of breeding range, and in lowlands of Central America.

Habitat:
Found in various settings from open woodlands and forests to desert and agricultural lands.

Diet:
Opportunistic. Commonly eats rodents, birds, and reptiles, but will also eat other vertebrates and invertebrates as available. In Idaho, diet often includes ground squirrels, gophers, rabbits, mice, small birds, and reptiles. In Idaho studies, prey selection depended on relative prey densities and diet.

Ecology:
Builds stick nest in cliff, tree, or on artificial structure. Breeding density (pairs/km2) varies from 0.03 (Utah) to 0.78 (California), but is mostly less than 0.25. Elevated perches are important element of habitat. Home range found to be 13 km2 in Idaho study; composition of sympatric Red-tail and Ferruginous hawks was not affected by interspecific competition. Species is most common hawk in Idaho.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 5 eggs for about 34 days per egg. Both parents tend young, which leave nest at about 4 wk, fly at about 6.5-7 wk, and depend on parents for food for few weeks after fledging (Idaho study found 2.9 young/successful pair were produced). If clutch is lost, adult pair will renest (usually in another nest) a few weeks later. Successful reproduction usually does not occur before 2 yr. Pair bond is typically lifelong, at least in non-migratory populations, and probably in migrants as well.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Steenhof, K. and M.N. Kochert. 1988. Dietary responses of three raptor species to changing prey densities in a natural environment. J. Animal Ecol. 57:37-48.

Photos by Ed Dijak and George Jameson, ©2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Buteo regalis
(Ferruginous Hawk)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
22 1/2-25" (57-64 cm). Typical adults white below except for finely barred rufous legs, feathered to toes; upperparts reddish-brown with white patch at base of primaries (visible in flight); tail whitish or pale rufous, turning rusty toward tip; wing linings with some reddish mottling and dark wrist. Head often quite pale. Immatures have light thighs and lack rusty patches on wings; white rump and gray tail.

Similar Species- Red-tailed Hawk, Rough- legged Hawk, Swainson's Hawk

Song:
High pitched squeal, similar to, but shorter than the Red-tailed Hawk's.

Distribution:
Breeds from eastern Washington, southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and southwestern Manitoba, south to eastern Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, north-central Texas, western Oklahoma, and western Kansas. Winters from southwestern and south-central U.S., south to Baja California and central mainland of Mexico.

Habitat:
Found in shrub steppe at periphery of pinyon/juniper or other woodlands.

Diet:
Eats small mammals and reptiles (snakes and lizards), and occasionally eats birds (grouse, meadowlarks, etc.). Will also eat some insects. In Idaho, diet includes ground squirrels, rabbits, pocket gophers, kangaroo rats, mice, voles, lizards, and snakes.

Ecology:
Hunts from air or perch, most frequently near sunrise and sunset. Builds nest in tree or on cliff. Up to 8-10 nests per 100 km2 are possible if local conditions are favorable. Idaho study estimated average home range of males to be 7-8 km2; birds did not use habitats proportional to availability. In general, species is adversely affected by agricultural development. In Idaho, species is associated with nesting Swainson's Hawks, and commonly migrates south in fall, but resides in limited numbers in southern part of state. A 1985 southern Idaho survey located 72 occupied nests and revealed recent distribution is being maintained.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 3-4 eggs for about 32-33 days; male provides food. Young fledge in 35-50 days (males before females), and depend on parents for several additional weeks (southern Idaho study reported average brood number of 3.2). clutch size, fledging rate, and/or breeding density tend to vary with prey availability (especially jackrabbits or ground squirrels). Female evidently does not often renest if clutch is lost. Individuals are easily disturbed by humans during early nesting season. There is no eveidence that yearlings breed.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Bechard, M.J., K.D. Hague-Bechard, and D.H. Porter. 1986. Historical and current distributions of Swainson's and Ferruginous Hawks in southern Idaho. Dept. Biol., Boise St. Univ., Boise. 58pp.

Photo by C. Trost,© 1998
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Falco sparverius
(American Kestrel)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Falconidae
Family Description: Falcons

Physical Description:
9-12" (23-30 cm). Male: Slate gray on top of head and wings; wings dotted with black. Rusty back dotted with black; breast tinged with rust fading to a white belly dotted with black. Two vertical black stripes descend the lightly colored cheeks. Light rust bill is tipped with black; light buffy yellow legs and feet with black talons. Tail rusty with black subterminal band. Female: Darker barring on back and wings; both of which are rusty; tail completely barred.

Similar Species- Sharp-shinned Hawk, Merlin

Song:
Clearly called klee-klee-klee-klee.

Distribution:
Breeds from central Alaska and most of forested Canada, south through most of North, Central, and South America, to Tierra del Fuego. Winters from northern U.S. (locally in southern Canada), south through breeding range to Panama.

Habitat:
Found in open or partly-open habitat such as shrub steppe, wooded streams, burned forests, cultivated lands, farmland with scattered trees, open woodlands, along roads, and sometimes in cities. In Idaho, found from low deserts to high mountain meadows.

Diet:
In summer, feeds on insects and small vertebrates (e.g., snakes, lizards, birds, mice, and sometimes bats). In winter in northern range, feeds mainly on birds and mice. In Idaho, diet includes insects and small mammals.

Ecology:
Forages from conspicuous perch or while in flight (regularly hovers in flight while hunting). Hunts most actively in morning and late afternoon, rests during middle of day. Two western U.S. studies found average territory size to be 109.4 ha and 129.6 ha. Home range diameter during breeding season varies from 0.5-2.4 km. Nests in cavities (in Idaho, regularly nests in urban areas). Nesting density varies greatly throughout range, depending on nest-site availability and probably food supply; may tolerate close nesting by other pairs in some regions. May be attacked by larger raptors. Year-round Idaho resident.

Reproduction:

Female incubates 3-7 eggs (usually 4-5, but 2-6 in Idaho) for 29-31 days. Southeastern Idaho study reported clutch sizes ranging from 4.5-4.7, during 1975-76, and average numbers fledged ranged from 3.7-4.0. Both parents tend young, which leave nest in about 29-31 days, but may stay with parents for 2-4 wks or more (no later than late summer in U.S.). Readily lays replacement clutch if first clutch lost. Most young first breed at 1 yr. Monogamy through successive breeding seasons seems to prevail.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Craig, T.H. and C.H. Trost. 1979. The biology and nesting density of breeding American Kestrels and Long-eared Owls on the Big Lost River, southeastern Idaho. Wilson Bull. 91:50-61.

Photos by Ed Dijak and C. Trost,© 1999-2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Pandion haliaetus
(Osprey)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Accipitridae
Family Description: Osprey, Hawks and Eagles

Physical Description:
21-24 1/2" (53-62 cm). Dark brown back and wings; white below and under wings. Head black and white: black splash on crown, black eye ring, and black eye stripe continuing past ear. Black spotting on breast of female. Distinctive bend in wing when flying.

Similar Species- Bald Eagle

Song:
Whistled chirping: cheerp-cheerp-cheerp.

Distribution:
Breeds from northwestern Alaska, east to northern Saskatchewan, Labrador, and Newfoundland, and south to Baja California, Arizona, Gulf Coast, Florida, and Yucatan Peninsula. Winters from California and Gulf Coast, south through Central America to South America.

Habitat:
Found along rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and seacoasts, occuring widely in migration, often crossing land between bodies of water.

Diet:
Feeds almost exclusively on fishes (usually live).

Ecology:
Catches food by diving feet- first into shallow water. Builds stick nest usually near water (sometimes up to 5 km from water), in tree or atop pole. Simetimes nests semi-colonially. Artificial platforms are highly productive, and help expand local populations, especially along reservoirs. Species is kleptoparasitised by Bald Eagles. Idaho study revealed birds nesting in northern Idaho winter in Central America. Northern Idaho nestlings disperse to Nevada, Oregon, and Montana.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 2-4 eggs (usually 3), for about 38 days; male provides food (Idaho study found young/nest averages 1.37). Young first fly at 44-59 days, and are dependent on parents for 6 wk or more (less in northern range). Breeding usually occurs at 3 yr, sometimes at 4-5 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Johnson, D.R. and W.E. Melquist. 1991. Wintering distribution and dispersal of northern Idaho and eastern Washington ospreys. J. Field Ornithol. 62:517-520.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Falco columbarius
(Merlin)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Falconidae
Family Description: Falcons

Physical Description:
10-13 1/2" (25-34 cm). Color varies from dusky brown to light or dark gray. Head may be contrasting color of brown on a gray bird. Streaking on head; lighter below with dark streaks. Several buffy bands cross the tail. Some have eyebrow stripe and/or mustache.

Similar Species- Peregrine Falcon, Prairie Falcon, American Kestrel

Song:
High pitched, repeated pwee-pwee-pwee, that accelerates.

Distribution:
Breeds from north westerm Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Manitoba, and Labrador south to northern Michigan, northwest Nebraska, northern Montana, rarely in northern and eastern Idaho, eastern Oregon, and central Washington. They winter in southern portions of this range and southward.

Habitat:
They bree in both deciduous and coniferous forests, frequently near water, where they rely on old corvid nests (i.e., ravens crows, and magpies). They recently extended their breeding into some cites, such as Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. In Idaho they are very rare, but are thought to use riparian habitat along streams or lakes.

Diet:
Mostly small birds up to magpie in size, which they capture on the wing. They also hunt blackbirds, and House Sparrows.

Ecology:
As in most bird eating raptors, their density is usually low. Their hunting techniques are varied, from suprise attacks off hidden perches to breath-taking vertical dives. They fly so quickly that they easily overtake their prey, sometimes coming from underneath a flock and taking a bird going up.

Reproduction:
The normal clutch size is between 4 and 5 eggs, whcih are laid at two day intervals. The female dose most of the incubation, except when the male has brought in food. They begin breeding at about two years and the oldest known breeder was six years.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Falco peregrinus anatum
(Peregrine Falcon)

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Falconidae
Family Description: Falcons

Physical Description:
15-21" (38-53 cm). Dark gray back; white eyebrow; white cheeks with dark "sideburns"; white neck; white and gray scaling below. Typical falcon wings are pointed; narrow tail. Immatures are brown instead of gray.

Similar Species- Gyrfalcon, Prairie Falcon, Merlin

Song:
A loud, shrill, coarse kek-kek-kek-kek-kek-kek.

Distribution:
Nearly cosmopolitan; breeds on every continent except Antarctica.

Habitat:
Found in various open situations from tundra, moorland, steppes, and seacoasts (especially where there are suitable nesting cliffs), to mountains, open forested regions, and populated areas. In Idaho, former and current nest sites are located in both mountain and desert regions, and are generally associated with bodies of water.

Diet:
Feeds primarily on birds (medium-size passerines up to small waterfowl), but will also eat (rarely or locally) small mammals, lizards, fish, and insects (eaten by young birds). In Idaho, diet consists almost entirely of birds.

Ecology
Nests on cliff or building May hunt anytime during day, but usually hunts in morning or evening. Initiates prey pursuit from perch or while soaring. May hunt up to several km from nest site. Great- horned Owl is serious nest predator in U.S. (in Idaho, Golden Eagles are also predators). Severe weather may result in high mortality in northern range. Since 1982, 288 captive- reared young have been released in Idaho. The first re-establishing pair of peregrines was discovered in 1985. As of 1995, 13 pairs of peregrines occupied territories in Idaho. In 1995, 6 occupied territories in Idaho successfully fledged an average of 2.7 young/pr.

Reproduction
clutch size averages 4 eggs at mid-latitudes, 3 in far north. Female incubates eggs for 32-35 days; male brings food. clutch is often replaced if lost, usually at an alternate site (brood losses are apparently caused mainly by bad weather). Young fledge at 39-49 days, gradually become independent, and breed at 2-3 yr (occasionally as yearlings). Adults form life-long pair bond.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Levine, E., W. Melquist, and J. Beals. 1995. Idaho peregrine falcon survey, nest monitoring, and release program, 1995. Idaho Dept. Fish & Game, Boise 25pp.

Photo by Peter S. Weber,© 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Falco mexicanus
(Prairie Falcon)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Falconiformes
Order Description: Vultures, Osprey, Hawks, Falcons
Family: Falconidae
Family Description: Falcons

Physical Description:
17-20" (43-51 cm). Gray-brown above with white edging on feathers for a scaling effect. White below with dark, vertical streaks. Brown on top of head and white on neck; blackish, vertical streaks on cheeks. Yellow feet and dark bill. Undersides of wings show black wingpits in flight.

Similar Species- Peregrine Falcon

Song:
Hoarse, repeated whistle, sometimes incessant.

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern British Columbia, southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and northern North Dakota, south to Baja California, parts of southwestern U.S., and northern Mexico. Winters from breeding range in southern Canada, south to Baja California and northern Mexico.

Habitat:
Found in open situations in mountainous shrub steppe, or grasslands areas. In Idaho, breeds in shrub steppe and dry mountainous habitat, and winters at lower elevations.

Diet:
Feeds opportunistically on mammals, lizards, and birds. In southwestern Idaho, Townsend's ground squirrels are main prey item.

Ecology:
Nests on cliff, sometimes in old corvid or raptor nest. Rapidly pursues birds in flight, but usually captures prey on or near ground. May cache prey in vegetation, on ledge, or in small crevice or cavity (caching is most common during early brood rearing). Cumulative home range size increases from incubation to hatching period. Birds disperse from lower elevations after young fledge. Average home range in southwestern Idaho study was 49-73 km2; highest known nesting density in North America occurs in that area (recorded nesting densities: 23 pairs on 26 km of cliffs in Colorado; and 200 pairs in 130 km along Snake River). Annual mortality has been estimated at 74% in immatures, and 25% in adults. Southwestern Idaho study found construction and recreation activities had no detectable adverse effects on nesting Prairie Falcons.

Reproduction
Laying may begin as early as: February in Texas and Mexico; March in California, Washington, Arizona, and Oregon; and April in Montana and Wyoming. Female (usually) incubates 6 eggs for 29-33 days; male brings food (in southern Idaho study, maximum broods averaged 3.14 young/nest). In southwestern Idaho, from 1974-83, numbers fledged/pair ranged from 1.48-3.23. Young are tended by both parents, remain at nest site for 36-41 days, and first breed at 2 yr. (sometimes 1).

Conservation:

Important State References:
Holthuijzen, A.M.A. 1990. Behavior and productivity of nesting prairie falcons in relation to construction activities at Swan Falls Dam. Final Report. Idaho Power Co., Boise. 77pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Perdix perdix
(Gray Partridge)

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
12-14" (30-36 cm). A gray-brown bird with cinnamon face; cinnamon on sides of tail and chestnut diagonal streaks on flanks. Fine white streaks on back; brown inverted "U" belly patch on males. Gray feet and bill; dark eyes.

Similar Species- Chukar, Northern Bobwhite

Song:
A scratchy, low squeek.

Distribution:
Native to western Eurasia. Widely introduced in North America, and established locally from southern Canada to northern U.S. (from New York, west to Oregon).

Habitat:
Found primarily in cultivated regions with marginal cover of bushes, undergrowth, or hedgerows. In study conducted in Palouse region of Idaho, birds wintered mostly in plowed stubble fields.

Diet:
Feeds primarily on seeds of wheat, corn, barley, oats, smartweeds, lambs quraters, crabgrass, and others. Also eats leaves of clover, alfalfa, bluegrass, and dandelion. Chicks feed on insects for first few weeks of life. In winter, and spring diets; small grains (oats, barley, wheat, rye) are rarely consumed, though widely available. In one study, partridges ate more leafy vegetation when row crop grains were buried by snow, consumed predominately insects in early summer, and ate foxtail seeds in late summer and early fall.

Ecology:
Builds concealed nest in shallow depression in grass or shrubs; Idaho study found most nests were in areas of permanent cover. Forages on ground. In New York study, home range was 82-672 ha; size did not differ by season.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins late May to early June. Female lays 8-23 eggs in 1 nest; 2 hens my lay eggs in same nest. Incubation lasts 23-25 days; hatching peaks in mid-June in north-central Idaho. Nestlings are precocial and downy. Parents probably form lifetime pair bond; both parents tend young. Idaho study found nesting success ranged from 12%-63% over 2-yr period.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Mendel, G.W. 1979. The hungarian partridge in the Palouse Region of Northern Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 161pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Alectoris chukar
(Chukar)

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
13-15 1/2" (33-39 cm). Gray above, on breast, and on rump; lighter below; breast and wings tinted with rufous. Blackish brown eye stripe that curves around a whitish face to connect to a blackish chin stripe. Dark reddish, vertical stripes on flanks. Dark orange bill and eye ring; lighter orange legs.

Similar Species- Northern Bobwhite, Gray Partridge

Song:
Repeats its name in a series of chucks: chuck-chucka-chuck-chucka-chuck.

Distribution:
Native to Eurasia. Introduced and resident in North America from south-central British Columbia, northern Idaho, and central and eastern Montana, south to northern Baja California, southern Nevada, northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and south-central Colorado.

Habitat:
Found on rocky hillsides, mountain slopes with grassy vegetation, open and flat deserts with sparse grasses, and barren plateaus.

Diet:
Feeds primarily on seeds and leaves. Also eats some fruits and insects.

Ecology:
Builds concealed nest on ground, or in rocks or bush. Most foraging activity occurs in mid-morning, but may continue into afternoon. Frequently inactive and near water at mid-day in hot weather. In favorable habitat, population density can reach levels of 1 bird/4 hectares. In late summer, family groups may join and form larger groups. Males reportedly may leave female during incubation and spend summer with other males. Idaho study found greatest dispersion in spring; in summer birds restricted themselves to tree-shrub vegetation adjacent to water. A habitat-use study in north-central Idaho was initiated in 1994 by the Idaho Dept. Fish & Game.

Reproduction:
clutch size varies from 8-15 eggs. Incubation lasts 22-23 days (some authorities state male may incubate first clutch while female lays second). Nestlings are precocial. Young are almost full-size at 84 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Oelklaus, W.F. III. 1976. Chukar partridge dispersion along the middle and lower Snake and Columbia Rivers. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 56pp.

Photo byC. Trost,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Phasianus colchicus
(Ring-necked Pheasant)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
30-36" (75-91 cm). Male: Iridescent greenish-black head with red facial patches and wattles and two feathered tufts; pinkish gray bill hooks at the end; white, incomplete neck ring; long, pointed tail. Body deep tawny-chestnut with blue-black belly and rich golden, mottled flanks. Immatures and females: primarily buff, mottled with brown and black.

Similar Species- Sharp-tailed Grouse

Song:
Explosive double squawk: Kork-kok

Distribution:
Native to Asia. Introduced and established in North America from southern Canada, south locally to California, Utah, sothern New Mexico, southeastern Texas, northwestern Oklahoma, southern Illinois, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Maryland.

Habitat:
Found in open country -- especially cultivated areas, scrubby wastes, open woodlands, and edges of woods, but also in shrub steppe, riverside thickets, swamps, and open mountain forests.

Diet:
Eats waste corn, wheat barley, oats, buckwheat, berries, and seeds of ragweed, burdocks, and pine. In spring, eats green vegetatioin. Will also eat some insects, mice, and snails.

Ecology
Nests in depression in grass or weeds. Forages on ground. roosts in trees. Usually ranges over no more than 2-3 km. In fall, family groups may join and form flocks of 30-40 birds; flocks break up in spring. Populations in Idaho thought to be declining due to winter habitat loss. Idaho study showed pheasants preferred sagebrush, wetland, and herbaceous cover types in winter, and avoided grassland and agricultural areas. Livestock grazing decreased pheasant use of sagebrush. In 1994 the Idaho Dept. Fish & Game initiated research on pheasant response to intensive habitat management, predator management, and the effects of pesticides on pheasants.

Reproduction:
Usually 10-12, but sometimes 5-23, eggs are laid in 1 nest. Two hens may lay eggs in same nest. Incubation lasts 23-25 days. Nestlings are precocial and downy; young are tended by female.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Leptich, D.J. 1992. Winter habitat use by hen pheasants in southern Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:367-380.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Falcipennis canadensis
(Spruce Grouse)

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
15-17" (38-43 cm). Brown and white mottling and barring all over that darkens to black at the throat in the male and at the tail in both sexes. Tail ends with a brown or buff tip. Male also has distinct white tipped feathers on breast and tail; red eye combs.

Similar Species- Ruffed Grouse

Song:
Deeply, trilled, dove-like call ending with a donkey ee-a. Wings make sharp clap in flight displays.

Distribution:
Found from central Alaska, east through parts of Canada to Labrador, and south to northeastern Oregon, central Idaho, western Montana, northwestern Wyoming, northern Montana, Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, and parts of New England.

Habitat:
Found in coniferous forests (primarily spruce and pine), especially in forests with dense grass and shrub understories.

Diet:
Eats needles and buds of spruce, jack pine, fir, and larch. Also consumes berries, seeds, fungi, leaves, and some insects as available. In Ontario study, spring diet consisted mainly of conifer foliage, flowers, fruits, foliage of ground plants, grit, and arthropods.

Ecology:
Nests in depression on ground, often near fallen tree. Takes food from foliage, or forages on ground. Primarily arboreal. Usually found alone or in small, family flocks. In southwestern Alberta study, spring population density fluctuated from 5-30/ha over 21 yr; population decline was attributed to maturation of forest. Populations may be highest in earlier stages of post-fire succession.

Reproduction
Female incubates 5-10 eggs (usually 6-7) for 23-24 days. Hatching occurs from late June-early July in Alberta. Young are tended by female. Females reach sexual maturity as yearlings. Cold, wet conditions during incubation result in poor productivity. In Ontario study, large clutch size was associated with high intake of flowers of trailing arbutus and moss spore capsules; females relied on spring diet and stored reserves for nutrients required for clutch formation.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photos by Marcus Martin,© 1999 and Peter S. Weber,© 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Dendragapus obscurus
(Blue Grouse)

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
15 1/2-21" (39-53 cm). Males sooty-gray and females brown- gray. Mottled above, solid below and whitish flanks; dark tail with pale gray terminal band (absent in birds north of the Rockies). Males have a yellow-orange comb over black eyes.

Similar Species- Female Sage Grouse, Spruce Grouse, Ruffed Grouse

Song:
Deep hoot that almost sounds like water dripping: Whoop-whoop-whoop- whoop. Can almost feel it more than hear it.

Distribution:
From southeastern Alaska, south through western Canada to eastern Washington, and south from there through Rocky Mountains to eastern Nevada, northern and eastern Arizona, southwestern and north-central New Mexico, and eastern Colorado. Also present from western Washington south in coastal ranges and Cascades through Sierra Nevada to southern California and extreme western Nevada.

Habitat:
Found in coniferous forests (especially fir), mostly in open situations with mixture of deciduous trees and shrubs. Spends winter (usually at elevations higher than that of summer habitat) in open coniferous forests of various categories of age and tree density. Idaho study found spring and summer habitat to be low-elevation bigtooth maple, mountain mahogany, and mixed shrub stands with open understory and overstory.

Diet:
In summer, feeds on variety of berries, insects, flowers, and leaves. In winter, feeds mainly on needles and buds of conifers (Douglas-fir is often important). Also eats waste grain.

Ecology:
Primarily a solitary, montane species. Nests in depression on ground, frequently near shrub or fallen tree. Forages on ground or takes food from foliage. roosts in large conifers with dense foliage. Courting males establish territories.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins mid- April in southern range, to late May in north. Female incubates 7-10 eggs (sometimes up to 16), for 26 days, and may renest if nest is destroyed. Nestlings are precocial and downy. Young are tended by female. yearling males often do not breed.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Stauffer, D.F. and S.R. Peterson. 1985. Ruffed and blue grouse habitat use in southeastern Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:459-466.

Original images provided by Brad Bergstrom,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Bonasa umbellus
(Ruffed Grouse)

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
16-19" (40-48 cm). Two color phases. Red phase: mottled rufous above, lighter and barred below; tail red, finely barred, with broad, dark subterminal band and light tip. Gray phase: gray replaces red and rufous. Both phases show a slight crest, a fan-shaped tail, and black feathers on sides of neck.

Similar Species- Female Spruce Grouse, Sharp-tailed Grouse

Song:
Male beats wings on logs in an accelerating drum roll. May sound like a distant motor starting up.

Distribution:
Central Alaska and most of forested Canada, south to northern California, central Arizona, central Idaho, central Utah, western South Dakota, Minnesota, Georgia, and Virginia.

Habitat:
Found in wet or relatively dry, dense forests with some deciduous trees, such as boreal forests (especially early seral stages dominated by aspen) or northern hardwood ecotone. In southeastern Idaho study, Ruffed Grouse were associated with early-successional aspen stands year-round.

Diet:

Young eat mainly insects and spiders. Adults eat insects (30% of summer diet), nuts, flowers, buds, and leaves of trees and shrubs, seeds, and fruits. In many areas, aspen, willow, and rose family are important food resources.

Ecology:
Nests in depression on ground. Usually roosts in small groups in winter. Population densities may fluctuate (10- yr cycle in some populations). Spring density may reach 2-10/40 ha; fall density 20-55/ha (highest in boreal forest regions). brood home range is about 6-19 ha. In Missouri study, mean adult male home range was 67 ha in spring-summer, 104 ha in fall-winter. Mature and some immature males may defend a territory. Predators include Great-horned Owl and Northern Goshawk. Shallow snow cover or icy crust on snow may reduce winter survival by precluding access to subnivean shelter.

Reproduction:
Drumming/mating peak in mid-March to May, depending on range. Egg laying occurs April-May, depending on latitude. Female incubates 4-19 eggs (generally 9-12) for 23-24 days. Nestlings are precocial and downy, and fly in 10-12 days. Young are tended by female. broods break up in fall when young are about 84 days old (young disperse at about 120-125 days in Wisconsin). Single-brooded, but females may renest if first nesting attempt is unsuccessful. Sexually mature in 1 yr; uncommonly lives more than 5 yr. Cold, wet weather in May/June may cause high losses among broods.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Stauffer, D.F. and S.R. Peterson. 1985. Ruffed and blue grouse habitat use in southeastern Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 49:459-466.

Photo by C. Trost, ©1999.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Centrocercus urophasianus
(Sage Grouse)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
26-30" (65-76 cm). Streaked gray above with dark belly and white breast. Throat black with white collar; yellow-orange eyebrow. Spike-like tail feathers that are fanned out in mating ritual. Immatures and females have mottled brown throat and breast.

Similar Species- Blue Grouse, Sharp-tailed Grouse

Song:
Male makes a bubbling pop-pop sound as air is released from air sacs during courtship ritual. Clucks like a chicken when flushed.

Distribution:
Previously widespread. Resident locally from central Washington, southern Idaho, Montana, and parts of southern Canada and Great Plains, south to eastern California, south-central Nevada, southern Utah, western Colorado and northern New Mexico.

Habitat:
Found in foothills, plains and mountain slopes where sagebrush is present, or in mixture of sagebrush, meadows, and aspen in close proximity. In some areas, suitable winter habitat is probably most limiting seasonal factor.

Diet:
Feeds on sagebrush during winter. At other times of year, feeds on sagebrush as well as leaves, blossoms, and buds of associated plants. Also eats insects (e.g., ants and grasshoppers).

Ecology:
Builds concealed nest in depression on ground under sagebrush. Forages in foliage, or on ground. lek breeder; up to 400 males may display in area 0.8 km long. In Idaho, populations may move 0.2-81.0 km from summer to winter range. Agricltural areas are important component of summer rante; sagebrush stands are more important in winter. In Idaho study, nesting success was higher in sagebrush versus non-sagebrush sites. Other Idaho investigations by the Dept. Fish & Game are examining the impact of wildfire in shrub steppe on sage grouse.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 7-8 eggs (sometimes 7-15), for 25-27 days. Young are precocial and downy, are tended by female, and fly when they are 7-14 days old.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Connelly, J.W., W.L. Wakkinen, A.D. Apa, and K.P. Reese. 1991. Sage grouse use of nest sites in southeastern Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 55:521-524.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Tympanuchus phasianellus columbianus
(Sharp-tailed Grouse)

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
15-20" (38-51 cm). Speckled pale brown and blackish overall, somewhat darker above than below, spotted white on wings; belly whitish, spotted dark. Central tail feathers slightly elongated with graduated white outer tail feathers. Male has violet neck sacs and longer tail than female.

Similar Species- Female Ring-necked Pheasant, Prairie-chickens, Ruffed Grouse

Song:
A low, dove-like co-coo. Also, squeaky, bubbly cackles.

Distribution:
Locally from Alaska, east to western Quebec, and south to eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, Utah, Colorado, northeastern New Mexico (at least formerly), and parts of Midwest.

Habitat:
Found in grasslands (especially with scattered woodlands), arid sagebrush, brushy hills, oak savannas, and edges of riparian woodlands. Also found in upland winter wheat fields. In west-central Idaho study, grouse preferred big sagebrush to other summer cover types; mountain shrub and riparian cover types were critical components of winter habitat.

Diet:

Initially, chicks eat insects and some berries. Adults eat berries, grain, leaves, buds, and flowers of wide variety of plants. In spring, fall, and winter, roughly 10% of adult bird's diet is insects (up to 40% in summer); 90% or more is plant material. In Idaho study, hawthorn fruits and buds of serviceberry and chokecherry were primary winter foods.

Ecology:
Builds concealed nest in depression on ground, in grass or near shrub. Forages in foliage or on ground (broods forage in short vegetation in early morning and evening, and in taller vegetation at other times). Gathers in flocks in fall and winter. Often uses snow as roost cover in winter. In Idaho study, winter food/cover was regarded as most limiting habitat characteristic for long-term abundance. Spring/autumn home ranges were 1.87 km2. In Montana, spring, summer, and fall distribution of males is generally within 1.6 km of lek; in other states, movements of up to several km between seasonal habitats have been reported.

Reproduction:
Males engage in communal courtship displays. Breeding begins early April in southern/western range, to early May in north. Female incubates 10-13 eggs (usually) for 23-24 days (Idaho study reported average clutch of 10.8). Young are tended by female; brood disperses in 6-8 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Marks, J.S. and V.S. Marks. 1987. Habitat selection by Columbian sharp-tailed grouse in west-central Idaho. USDI Bur. Land Manage., Boise District, U.S. Govt. Report 792-057/40, 019, Boise. 115pp.

Original images provided by Brad Bergstrom,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Meleagris gallopavo
(Wild Turkey)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
Male: 46-48" (116-122 cm), female: 36" (90-91 cm). Largest North American game bird. Featherless, blue-gray head with red wattles (larger in males). All dark with Iridescent reddish and bronzy cast; tail and rump tipped whitish; wings barred. Male has spurs and long dangling tuft of feathers in middle of breast.

Song:
Similar to domestic turkey gobble.

Distribution:
Native to eastern and southwestern U.S., Mexico, and southern Ontario. Extirpated or reduced populations in some of those areas have been re- introduced; also re-introduced widely outside of former range.

Habitat:
Found, especially in mountainous regions, in forests and open woodland (scrub oak, and deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferous areas). Also found in agricultural areas in some regions; agricultural areas may provide important food resources in winter. In an Idaho study, brood rearing sites were characterized by low overstory canopy cover and high ground cover.

Diet:
Feeds on seeds, nuts, acorns, fruits, grains, buds, and young grass blades. During summer, eats many insects; may also eat some small vertebrates (frogs, toads, snakes, etc.).

Ecology:
Nests in depression on ground. Usually forages on ground. Roosts in trees at night. Sexes usually form separate flocks in winter. Severe winters and/or lack of winter habitat are important limiting factors in many northern areas., In Massachusetts study, predation exerted greatest influence on productivity; in Minnesota study, winter conditions and resulting pre- breeding female condition were important factor. In southeaster Oklahoma study, mean seasonal home range for adult females were 225 ha (winter), 865 ha (spring), 780 ha (summer), and 459 ha (fall). In Colorado study, adult males moved average distance of 5.3 km from winter ranges to spring breeding areas, and sub-adult males moved average distance of 8.7 km; in spring, males moved about 1000 m between morning and evening roosts used on same day.

Reproduction:
Female incubates average of 10-12 eggs for 27-28 days (in northeastern Colorado, most nests are initiated mid-April to mid-May). Hatching begins in May in southern range, usually early June in north. Young are tended by female; brood stay together until winter. Females first breed as yearlings. An Idaho study compared nest success and initiation rates between resident and introduced hens and found no significant difference.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Edelman, F.B. 1995. Ecology of Merriam's wild turkeys in west central Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Idaho, Moscow. 168pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Callipepla gambelii
(Gambel's Quail)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
10-11 1/2" (25-29 cm). Gray above and on breast; light belly with central black patch, bordered by dark, rusty flanks streaked with white. Black face and chin edged with white; white band across forehead, topped by lighter rusty crown and black plume. Immatures and females duller and lack belly patch.

Similar Species- California and Mountain Quails

Song:
A throaty, laughing, kha-kha-CAW.

Distribution:
Resident from east-central California, southern Nevada, southern Utah, western Colorado, and northwestern New Mexico, south to northeastern Baja California, portions of northern Mexico, and western Texas. Introduced in north-central Idaho.

Habitat:
Found in deserts (primarily with brushy or thorny growth such as mesquite, desert thorn, and yucca), but also in adjacent cultivated regions. Usually lives near water in river valleys or near streams. Ideal cover is composed of creek banks, willow thickets, brush piles, vines and brambles.

Diet:
Feeds on seeds, green vegetaion, and some fruits.

Ecology:
Builds nest in depression on ground, frequently under vegetation. May occasionally nest in bush or tree. Forages on ground. Most active in morning and in late afternoon and evening. In fall, family groups form coveys of 12-24 or 40-50 birds; coveys break up by March.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 12- 14 eggs (sometimes 10-19) for 21-23 days (male is usually nearby). precocial, downy nestlings are usually tended by both parents. Female may renest if first attempt is unsuccessful.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Taylor, D.M. and C.H. Trost. 1987. The status of rare birds in Idaho. Murrelet 68:69-93.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Callipepla californica
(California quail)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
9-11" (23-28 cm). Adult males bluish-gray above, with scaled belly and rusty or brownish sides streaked with white; black forward-curving plume arises from chestnut crown; black face and throat outlined in white; white eyebrow. Females more brown than gray; buff scaling on belly and diagonal streaking on flanks; short dark plume.

Similar Species- Gambel's and Mountain Quails

Song:
A three syllabled Chi-ca'-go.

Distribution:
Resident from southern Oregon and western Nevada, south to southern Baja California. Apparently introduced into southern British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, northern Oregon, and Utah.

Habitat:
Found (usually near water) in brushy, grassy, and weedy areas in both humid and arid regions, including chaparral, forest edges, cultivated lands, semi-desert scrub, thickets, sagebrush, and, less frequently, open second-growth woodlands.

Diet:
Primarily vegetarian. Eats leaves, seeds (e.g., clovers, lupines, grasses, grains), acorns, and berries. In spring, also eats tips of grasses and buds, as well as spiders, snails, and insects (e.g., grasshoppers, ants, beetles).

Ecology:
Usually nests on ground in shallow depression lined with vegetation. Sometimes nests above ground in fork of tree branch. Active during day, feeding mainly 1-2 hr after sunrise, and 1-2 hr before sunset. Highly gregarious, especially in fall and winter. In fall, family groups form coveys of 10- 200 birds, which usually disband by late April. Predators include hawks, owls, snakes, and coyotes.

Reproduction:

Breeding begins in January (southern range), and ends in mid-May (north). Female incubates 12-17 eggs (sometimes 6-18), for 21-23 days. precocial, downy nestlings are active soon after hatching, and are tended by both parents.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Oreortyx pictus
(Mountain Quail)

Order: Galliformes
Order Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail
Family: Phasianidae
Family Description: Pheasant, Grouse, Turkey, Quail

Physical Description:
10 1/2-11 1/2" (26-29 cm). Gray from head, down back of neck, and on breast; dark, rust red bordered by white on chin and front of neck. Brown wings and tail. White, black and orange-rust scaling on belly. Long, straight, black plume on top of head. Immatures and females have shorter plumes.

Similar Species- Gambel's and California Quails

Song:
A mellow, whistled whook?

Distribution:
Resident from southwestern British Columbia, western and southern Washington, and central Idaho, south through mountains of California and northern and western Nevada, to northern Baja California and Mexico.

Habitat:
Found in brushy mountainsides, coniferous forests, forest and meadow edges, and dense undergrowth. Also found in more arid conditions in sagebrush, pinyon and juniper. In Idaho, favors areas with tall dense shrubs that are close to water.

Diet:
In spring and summer, feeds on herbaceous vegetation (especially leaves, buds, and flowers of legumes) and some insects (grasshoppers, beetles, and ants). Eats seeds, acorns, and fruits during rest of year. Idaho study determined fringecup and thistle seeds dominated summer diet; elderberry fruits were important in fall.

Ecology:
Builds concealed nest in depression on ground, frequently near shrub, base of tree, or fallen log. Forages on ground, usually in early morning and late afternoon; rests at mid-day. Forms coveys of 3- 20 birds in late summer and early fall; covey disperses in late winter. Daily range varies by season (less than 920 m in winter, and less than 800 m in summer). Study conducted in different California habitats found 9-30 individuals may inhabit 100 ha. Population in Idaho has been declining for last 30 yr (1960-90), possibly due to riparian habitat degredation. Recent Idaho study points to predation by feral cats as a problem.

Reproduction:
Female (sometimes male) incubates 7-10 eggs for 24-25 days. precocial nestlings are tended by both parents, or by either adult. Young can fly about 14 days after hatching.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Heekin, P.E., R. Guse, C. Connell, K.P. Reese, and P.M. Zager. 1993. Mountain quail ecology -- job progress report, Study I, Job I. Idaho Dept. Fish & Game, Boise. 15pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Rallus limicola
(Virginia Rail)

Order: Gruiformes
Order Description: Rails, Coots, Cranes
Family: Rallidae
Family Description: Rails and Coots

Physical Description:
8 1/2-10 1/2" (22-27 cm). Colorfully camouflaged. Cinnamon wings, breast, and neck; back cinnamon with black mottling; darker brown-black and white barred flanks. Gray cheeks and red eyes. Long, slender, orange bill slightly downcurved. Immatures are darker with more black.

Similar Species- Clapper Rail, Sora, Yellow Rail, Black Rail

Song:
Calls include grunts, squeaks, and rapidly descending notes: Wak-wak-wak.

Distribution:
Breeds locally from southern British Columbia to Newfoundland, and south to northwestern Baja California, southern Arizona, west-central Texas, Missouri, Ohio, North Carolina, central Mexico, and South America. Winters from southern British Columbia to northern Baja California, and north to Gulf Coast and North Carolina.

Habitat:
Found in freshwater (occasionally brackish) marshes, mostly in cattails, reeds, and deep grasses.

Diet:
Eats insects and other invertebrates, seeds of aquatic plants, and duckweed.

Ecology:
Builds nest in vegetation, usually in dry area, but occasionally over mud or water. Probes into mud with bill.

Reproduction:
Lays clutch of 5-12 eggs (from April to June on West Coast, May to June or July in central and middle Atlantic and northern states). Incubation lasts about 20 days. Both sexes incubate eggs and tend young, which leave nest soon after hatching.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by Marcus Martin,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Porzana carolina
(Sora)

Order: Gruiformes
Order Description: Rails, Coots, Cranes
Family: Rallidae
Family Description: Rails and Coots

Physical Description:
8-9 3/4" (20-25 cm). Olive brown above with broad black streaks and fine white lines; gray head, neck and breast; underparts barred black, white, and gray; black face extending partly down neck; short yellow bill; yellow feet. Short tail often held cocked reveals white under tail. Immature is browner and lacks throat patch.

Similar Species- Yellow Rail, Virginia Rail, Common Moorhen, American Coot

Song:
Rapid descending whinny of very short, shrill dee notes. In spring an ascending ner-wee?

Distribution:
Breeds from southeastern Alaska, east to Newfoundland, and south locally to northwestern Baja California, southern New Mexico, eastern Colorado, southern Missouri, central Ohio, and Maryland. Winters regularly from central California, east to southern Texas and Gulf Coast, and south through Central America to portions of South America.

Habitat:
Found primarily in freshwater marshes, less frequently in flooded fields, sometimes foraging on open mudflats adjacent to marshy habitat. Prefers sedges and cattails where mud and water are deep. Also found in swamps and slough borders.

Diet:
Eats mollusks, insects, seeds of marsh plants, and duckweed.

Ecology:
Usually nests on ground or vegetation; occasionally builds nest over water. Frequently conceals nest with vegetation. Forages on ground. Departs dense cover mostly in early morning and evening. roosts communally in cattails or other dense vegetation when not breeding.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 6- 18 eggs (commonly 10-12) for 18-20 days. Young are tended by both parents, and leave nest within 1-2 days (but may return at night for brooding).

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by Luther Goldman,© 2002
Design by Ean Harker 1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Fulica americana
(American Coot)

Order: Gruiformes
Order Description: Rails, Coots, Cranes
Family: Rallidae
Family Description: Rails and Coots

Physical Description:
13-16" (33-41 cm). Slate gray with black head and neck; ivory bill and forehead topped with red ; red eyes; yellow-green legs extending to big lobed feet; white patches on either side of the tail. Immatures are paler with a duller bill.

Similar Species- Common Moorhen

Song:
Calls varied; mostly raucous, grating croaks and cackles.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska (casually), east across parts of Canada, and south (locally) to southern Baja California, Gulf Coast, Florida, and portions of Central America. Winters along Pacific Coast, north to southwestern U.S., lower Ohio Valley, and Maryland, and south through southeastern U.S. and Middle America to Panama and probably Colombia.

Habitat:
Found on calm, open water with plenty of algae and other aquatic vegetation, such as freshwater lakes, ponds, marshes, and larger rivers, wintering also on brackish estuaries and bays. Also found on land bordering these habitats.

Diet:
Eats seeds, roots, and other plant material, insects, snails, small fishes, tadpoles, and other small organisms.

Ecology:
Builds concealed nest over water. Feeds on land and in water. Often found in groups when not breeding.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 6- 22 eggs (most often 8-12 in North America) for 23-24 days. Young are tended by both parents, though brood may be divided between them. Young first fly probably at 7-8 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Grus canadensis
(Sandhill Crane)

Order: Gruiformes
Order Description: Rails, Coots, Cranes
Family: Gruidae
Family Description: Cranes

Physical Description:
34-48" (86-122 cm). Gray with bare red patch on crown; often stained with rust from wetlands rich in iron. Long, straight neck; long, dark legs. Immatures are brown.

Similar Species- Immature Whooping Crane

Song:
Gives a long, hollow, rolling garooooooo, audible at great distances

Distribution:
Breeds from northern Alaska and middle arctic Canada, south locally to northeastern California, Nevada, Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, and Minnesota. Also breeds in southeastern United States. Winters from southern U.S., south to central Mexico.

Habitat:
Found in open grasslands, marshes, marshy edges of lakes and ponds, river banks, and, occasionally, pine savannas.

Diet:
Feeds on roots, tubers, seeds, grain, berries, earthworms, insects, and small vertebrates (mice, lemmings, birds, snakes, lizards, etc.). Young forage for invertebrates during first few weeks of life. Idaho study found plants made up 73% of diet by volume, with insects and earthworms constituting 27%.

Ecology:
Usually builds concealed nest on ground surrounded by water, or in undisturbed location. roosts at night along river channels, on alluvial islands of braided rivers, or in natural basin wetlands. Communal roost site along open expanse of shallow water is key feature of wintering habitat. Often feeds and rests in fields and agricultural lands; also forages in marshes. Flocks in winter. Mean territory size in Idaho study was 17 ha. Highest reported density is Grays Lake, Idaho -- 200 pairs/10,000 ha. Grays Lake birds migrate in September and October to New Mexico and Arizona.

Reproduction:
Nesting occurs in Idaho from late April-early July. Nests with eggs can be found from: late February-late May in Florida (mean laying date mid-March); April in mid-U.S.; and mid-May in northern range. Both sexes, in turn, incubate usually 2 eggs for 28-30 days. Idaho study found 78% nest success; mean brood size at hatching and fledging was 1.8 and 1.3, respectively. Both parents tend young, which fly at about 2 mo, and remain with parents until following year. Pair usually renests if clutch is lost or abandoned (interval between clutches is 18-20 days in Florida). Usually, only 1 chick survives to fledging. May pair as early as 3 yr, but more commonly at 5-6 yr; in mid-continental North America, most recruitment is by cranes older than 7 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Mullins, W.H. and E.G. Bizeau. 1978. Summer foods of sandhill cranes in Idaho. Auk 95:175-178.

Photos by Marcus Martin,© 1999 and Peter S. Weber,© 2000
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Grus americana
(Whooping Crane)

Order: Gruiformes
Order Description: Rails, Coots, Cranes
Family: Gruidae
Family Description: Cranes

Physical Description:
50-52" (125-131 cm). The tallest North American bird; very rare. White with black wing tips. Long straight neck topped by a red face caused by an exposed patch of red skin on crown and along jaw. Feet and legs dark. Immatures are washed with rust color, especially about the head.

Similar Species- American White Pelican, Snow Goose, Sandhill Crane

Song:
Gives a musical, trumpet-like ker-loo, ker-loo.

Distribution:
Formerly found over much of central and eastern North America; present range is much reduced. Breeds in south-central MacKenzie River District and adjacent northern Alberta. Winters on Gulf Coast of Texas. Introduced in Idaho in Grays Lake National Wildlife Refuge; Idaho population winters in central New Mexico in Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge.

Habitat:
Found in freshwater marshes and wet prairies. During migration and in winter, also found in grain and stubble fields, and on shallow lakes. Winters on salt flats and marshes.

Diet:
During summer, feeds on insects, crustaceans, and berries. Winter diet includes grains, acorns, wolfberry fruit, insects, crustaceans, mollusks, fishes, amphibians, and reptiles. One study found radio-marked migrants fed primarily in variety of croplands.

Ecology:
Nests in dense, emergent vegetation in freshwater marshes, wet prairies, and along lake margins. Constructs mound nest of marsh vegetation; nest rises 20-48 cm above water level. Population has exhibited 10-yr periodicity. Mated pairs and families establish and defend winter territories on coastal marshes in Texas. Breeding territories are very large, averaging 770 ha. Idaho population was re-established through translocation (cross-fostered eggs) to sandhill cranes at Gray's Lake. High mortality (especially juveniles) due to shootings, collisions, and bad weather. No successful breeding occurred in experimental population in Idaho.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins in early May. Pair mates for life. Both sexes, in turn, incubate 2 eggs (sometimes 1-3), for 33-34 days. Nestlings are precocial, are tended by both adults, fledge when no less than 10 wk old, remain with parents until following year (dissociate after arrival on breeding grounds), and reach sexual maturity at 4-6 yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Carlson, G.E. and C.H. Trost. 1992. Sex determination of the whooping crane by analysis of vocalizations. Condor 94:532-536.

Photo by Marcus Martin,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Charadrius vociferus
(Killdeer)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Charadriidae
Family Description: Plovers

Physical Description:
9-11" (23-28 cm). Adults have white underparts and underwings with two contrasting broad black bands across breast (top band completely encircles neck); plain tan above; rump rufous; tail long and tapered with white edges and black subterminal band; upper wing with bold white stripe seen in flight. Black forecrown and face mask separated by white forehead and eyebrow; bill small and black; eyes large and dark.

Similar Species- Other Plovers

Song:
Gives piercing alarm whistles, repeats its name, and trills a dididididididee.

Distribution:
Breeds from Alaska, east through parts of Canada to Newfoundland, and south to southern Baja California, central Mexico, Gulf Coast, southern Florida, and western South America. Winters from southeastern Alaska (rarely), southern British Columbia, central U.S., and New England, south to western Indies and northern South America.

Habitat:
Found in fields, meadows, pastures, mudflats, and shores of lakes, ponds, and rivers; found less commonly along seacoasts.

Diet:
Feeds on small invertebrates on ground surface, but will also feed in shallow water.

Ecology:
Nests in depression on ground, in variety of habitats from unconcealed locations near human habitation, to gravelly, camouflaged areas. Nesting density in several different areas was 13-30 pairs/ha. Forages on ground. Sometimes active on moonlit nights. Adults engage in broken-wing distraction displays. In Idaho study, Killdeer were more abundant in grazed than ungrazed riparian habitat.

Reproduction:
clutch size varies from 3-5 eggs, but is usually 4. Both parents incubate eggs; incubation averages 24-30 days (female may desert second clutch in some areas). Young are attended by both parents, and first fly at about 25 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Medin, D.E. and W.P. Clary. 1990. Bird and small mammal populations in a grazed and ungrazed riparian habitat in Idaho. USDA Forest Service Inter. Res. Sta. Res. Paper INT-245, Boise. 8pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Himantopus mexicanus
(Black-necked Stilt)

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Recurvirostridae
Family Description: Avocets, Stilts

Physical Description:
13-17" (33-43 cm). Adult male glossy black back, wings, hindneck, crown, and ear; white spot over eye. White below. Long pink-red legs and needle-like black bill. Females and Immatures more brownish back.

Similar Species- American Avocet

Song:
A loud, incessant yapping yip-yip-yip-yip-yip.

Distribution:
Breeds from southern Oregon, Idaho, northern Utah, southern Colorado, eastern New Mexico, central Kansas, coastal Texas and southern Louisiana, south through Middle America to southern Chile and southern Argentina; may also breed in eastern Montana and western South Dakota. Breeds locally on Atlantic Coast from mid-Atlantic states, south to southern Florida. Winters mostly from southern California, southern coastal Texas, and Florida, south through breeding range.

Habitat:
Found in shallow water (salt or fresh) with soft muddy bottom. In Idaho, found on marshes, on flooded meadows and margins of pond, and on lakes and reservoirs; also occupies islands in Snake River.

Diet:
Eats polychaets, crustaceans, snails, and variety of insects (e.g., bugs, beetles, caddisflies, mosquito larvae, grasshoppers). Also feeds on some small fishes, as well as seeds of aquatic plants.

Ecology:
Social; sometimes found in loose groups of up to 50 individuals. Nests in small colonies. Builds nest in depression on ground, frequently in grass. Prefers to wade in shallow pools (up to 30 cm deep) but avoids deep water; plucks food from surface of water or mud, or probes in soft mud.

Reproduction:
Both adults, in turn, incubate 4 eggs about 25 days. Nestlings are precocial. Both adults tend young, which become independent in about 4 wk, and first fly at 7-8 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Recurvirostra americana
(American Avocet)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Recurvirostridae
Family Description: Avocets, Stilts

Physical Description:
15 1/2-20" (41-51 cm). A tall shorebird with distinctively upcurved bill. Adult has broad black and white stripes on back and inner half of upper wing; primaries black; belly and tail region white; head, neck, and breast light cinnamon in breeding plumage and dusky white in winter; legs long, thin, gray; black bill very long, very fine, distinctly upswept.

Similar Species- Black-necked Stilt, Godwits, Willet

Song:
Broadcasts ringing, repeated kyip calls.

Distribution:
Breeds from parts of southern Canada and Minnesota, south locally to southern California, central Nevada, northern Utah, south-central Colorado, southern New Mexico and San Luis Potosi, and east to central Kansas and coastal Texas. Nonbreeders may summer in usual winter range. Winters from California and southern Texas, south through Mexico, casually in Central America, and locally in southern Florida.

Habitat:
Found in lowland marshes, mudflats, ponds, alkaline lakes, and estuaries.

Diet:
Eats variety of aquatic insects and their larvae, crustaceans, and seeds of aquatic plants.

Ecology:
Nests in depression on ground, or on gravel, mud or vegetation. When breeding, nests in loose colonies. Colony may engage in group distraction displays or mob predators. Individuals walk slowly through water and often feed in flocks that number 12-300 birds. May dive or extend head under surface of water while feeding. May forage by swimming in deep water using their partially webbed feet to swim.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins in mid-April in southern range, to mid-May in north. Both parents incubate 3-4 eggs for 23- 25 days. Young are precocial and tended by both adults, and become independent in about 6 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Catoptrophorus semipalmatus
(Willet)

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Scolopacidae
Family Description: Sandpipers and Phalaropes

Physical Description:
14-17" (36-43 cm). Tall, robust, long-legged, and fairly long- billed, light sand-gray bird with bluish-gray legs. Lighter bellow. May appear slightly streaky. In flight, the black and white wing pattern is visible; from above a white rump patch.

Similar Species- Greater Yellowlegs, Godwits, Wandering Tattler

Song:
Musical, repetitious pill-will-willet, weep-weep-weep, and others.

Distribution:
Breeds locally from eastern Oregon, Idaho, and parts of souht- central Canada, south to east-central California, western Nevada, central Utah, northern Colorado, and parts of Midwest. Also breeds locally along parts of Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Winters north to California and Virginia, and south to South America. Nonbreeders may summer in winter range.

Habitat:
Found in marshes, tidal mudflats, beaches, lake margins, tidal channels, river mouths, coastal lagoons, sandy or rocky shores, and, less frequently, open grasslands.

Diet:
Feeds primarily on small invertebrates (crustaceans, mollusks, insects, and worms).

Ecology
Builds nest (concealed or in open) in depression on beach or flat. When not breeding, forages singly or in small, loose groups, typically in shallow water, on water surface, or in mud. Gathers in large flocks to sleep or rest. Uses separate feeding and nesting areas when breeding. Females show strong fidelity to mate and feeding areas between years. In Idaho study, Willets were more abundant in grazed than ungrazed riparian habitat.

Reproduction:
Female (possibly male, at night) incubates 4 eggs for 22 days. Eggs are laid April-May, depending on range. Young are tended by both parents, and are abandoned at an early age.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Medin, D.E. and W.P. Clary. 1990. Bird and small mammal populations in a grazed and ungrazed riparian habitat in Idaho. USDA Forest Service Inter. Res. Sta. Res. Paper INT-245, Boise. 8pp.

Photo by H.R. Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Actitis macularia
(Spotted Sandpiper)

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Scolopacidae
Family Description: Sandpipers and Phalaropes

Physical Description:
7 1/2-8" (18-20 cm). Olive-brown above, with a white line over the eye and dark line through the eye; a dusky smudge encloses a white wedge near the shoulder. In summer the white underparts are spotted with brown and blackish spots cover above. Bill is orange-pink with dark tip; legs are flesh-colored. No spots in winter.

Similar Species- Solitary Sandpiper, Wandering Tattler

Song:
A clear peet or peet-weet! or repeated weet-weet-weet-weet-weet.

Distribution:
Breeds across portions of Alaska and Canada, south to Oregon, southern California, central Arizona, southern New Mexico, Texas, and parts of southeastern United States. Winters from southwestern British Columbia, western Washington, southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, southern Texas, and coastal southeastern U.S., south to South America.

Habitat:
Found on seacoasts and shores of lakes, ponds, and streams, and occasionally in marshes. Prefers shores with rocks, wood, or debris.

Diet:
Eats mainly small invertebrates.

Ecology:
Builds nest in depression on ground, on elevated site in vegetation or rocks. May form loose colonies when breeding. Obtains food from water surface, or by probing along shores, or sometimes inland. When not breeding, defends individual territory, and forms small flocks to sleep (normally does not flock). In one study, predation by single mink reduced local annual reproductive success from 30-50 chicks fledged to zero.

Reproduction:
Male incubates 4 eggs (usually) for 20-21 days. Female may lay clutch for more than 1 male (polyandrous). Male may change mate if nest fails. Young are attended by male, leave nest soon after hatching, and fly at 13-16 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by Marcus Martin, ©1999.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Bartramia longicauda
(Upland Sandpiper)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Scolopacidae
Family Description: Sandpipers and Phalaropes

Physical Description:
11-12 1/2" (28-32 cm). Unique shape: Short bill on small head with shoe-button eyes; thin, long neck; long tail and long yellowish legs. Dark brown mottling on back and upper wings, with feathers fringed golden-buff and barred with black; streaked crown with narrow buff median stripe; throat whitish with fine dark streaks becoming larger on lower breast and flanks. Whitish unstreaked belly.

Similar Species- Buff-breasted Sandpiper, Curlews

Song:
Calls a mellow, whistled quip-ip-ip-ip. Song, begins with short rattle, continues with weird windy whistles: whoooleeeeee, wheelooooooooo. First slides up in pitch, second slides down.

Distribution:
Breeds locally from Alaska, east through central Canada and Great Lakes region to southern New Brunswick, and south in interior to eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, Idaho, Colorado, northwestern Oklahoma, Texas, and parts of Midwest and mid-Atlantic states. Winters in South America.

Habitat:
Found in grasslands (especially prairies), dry meadows, pastures, short-grass savannas, plowed fields, fields around airports, and (in Alaska) scattered woodlands at timberline. Found very rarely (in migration) along shores and mudflats. In Idaho, prefers dry grass prairies, and is not tied to wet areas or shores.

Diet:
Eats mainly insects and other small, terrestrial invertebrates.

Ecology:
Forages on ground. When not breeding, found alone or in small, scattered groups. Has conspicuous habit of whistling while sitting on fence posts. Arrives in Idaho in early May and begins courtship and copulation immediately; engages in high flying as part of courtship. Builds concealed nest in depression on ground in vegetation. Population in Idaho appears restricted to 3 or 4 small colonies.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 4 eggs (usually), for 21-24 days (eggs are laid May-June, depending on range). Both parents tend young, which first fly at 30-31 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Taylor, D.M. and C.H. Trost. 1987. The status of rare birds in Idaho. Murrelet 68:69-93.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Numenius americanus
(Long-billed Curlew)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Scolopacidae
Family Description: Sandpipers and Phalaropes

Physical Description:
20-26" (51-66 cm). Tall shorebird with a very long (4-8 1/2"), sickle-shaped bill. Warm buff-brown mottling above; brown streaking on neck and on lighter belly. In flight, shows cinnamon wing linings. Long, gray legs. Immature has a much shorter bill and less streaking on breast and throat.

Similar Species- Whimbrel, Ibis

Song:
A loud cur-lee, ascending in pitch. Also a short alarm trill kli-li-lili-lili.

Distribution:
Breeds from southwestern Canada, south to eastern Washington, northeastern California, Nevada, Utah, southern Colorado, New Mexico and northern Texas, and east to southwestern Kansas. Winters from central California, southern Arizona (rarely), northern Mexico, and parts of Gulf Coast states, south to southern Mexico, and irregularly to Central America.

Habitat:
Found in prairies and grassy meadows, generally near water. During migration and in winter, also found on beaches and mudflats. In Idaho, prefers open, recently-grazed shrub steppe containing short vegetation for nesting; often feeds in agricultural areas.

Diet:
Feeds on insects (grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, etc.). Eats some berries. During migration, also feeds on crayfishes, crabs, snails, and toads. In Idaho, grasshoppers and carabid beetles are dominant in chick diet. May probe into loose soil for insect larvae. Predation on nestling birds has been observed.

Ecology:
Forages on ground. Idaho study found adults foraged within 10 km of their nest sites; minimum home range approached 1000 ha. Individuals buildnests on ground, frequently in depressions or on slopes. Will sometimes nest on platform. Breeding density has been reported as: about 5-7 males/100 ha in Idaho; 1 pair/6-7 km2 in Saskatchewan; up to 15 territories in 10.4 km2 in Washington In Idaho, predators include canids, mustelids, feral cats, magpies, gulls, and raptors; grazing livestock have damaged nests.

Reproduction:
Curlews arrive in southwestern Idaho in late March. Eggs are laid over 4-7 days. clutch size varies from 3- 5 eggs (in Idaho, average is near 4). Incubation lasts 28-30 days; both sexes incubate eggs. Nestlings are precocial. Young are tended by both parents. Fledging lasts from mid-June until end of July, and success is greater for early nesters. By mid-August, most curlews have departed Idaho.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Jenni, D., R.L. Redmond, and T. Bicak. 1982. Behavioral ecology and habitat relationships of Long-billed Curlews in western Idaho. USDI Bur. Land Manage. Boise District, Boise. 234 pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Gallinago gallinago
(Common Snipe)

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Scolopacidae
Family Description: Sandpipers and Phalaropes

Physical Description:
10 1/2-11 1/2" (26-29 cm). Black-brown, with buff-white stripes and red-brown dots and lines on the back and head. buff to white neck and breast streaked with brown; sides, flanks, and undertail coverts barred with brown. Short, orange tail is rounded. Extremely long, straight bill and short legs.

Similar Species- Dowitchers, American Woodcock

Song:
Call a scratchy zhak when flushed. Song, a measured chip-a, chip-a, chip-a, etc. In high aerial display, tail produces an eerie, pulsing huhuhuhuhuhuhuhu.

Distribution:
Breeds from northern Alaska, east through parts of Canada to Maritime Provinces, and south to southern Alaska, central California, eastern Arizona, New Mexico (probably), Colorado, and parts of Midwest, mid-Atlantic states, and New England. Winters from southern Alaska (rarely), southern British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, Utah, central U.S., and Virginia, south to South America.

Habitat:
Found in wet, grassy, or marshy areas, from tundra to temperate lowlands and hilly regions. In winter and during migration, also found in wet meadows, flooded fields, bogs, swamps, moorlands, and marshy banks of rivers and lakes.

Diet:
Eats mostly insects (especially burrowing larvae), mollusks, crustaceans, and worms; sometimes eats seeds of sedges and grasses.

Ecology:
Nests in depression on ground, under concealing vegetation. When not breeding, forages singly or in loose groups. Feeds by probing into mud or soft soil, or taking some food on surface. Largely crepuscular in feeding, Nocturnal in migration. Usually roosts in flocks.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 4 eggs (usually) for 17-20 days. Young leave nest soon after hatching, are tended by both parents in 2 separate groups, and are capable of sustained flight at about 20 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by C. S. Robbins. ©2002.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Phalaropus tricolor
(Wilson's Phalarope)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Scolopacidae
Family Description: Sandpipers and Phalaropes

Physical Description:
8-10" (20-25 cm). Tall and trim, dark-winged phalarope with white rump. Needlelike black bill slightly longer than head. Gray above, white below. Breeding female: Broad black stripe starting at bill, crossing eyes and descending neck blends into rust-colored stripe that continues down back. Rust and gray mottled on back, wings and tail; legs black. Breeding male: Smaller and duller, with just a wash of cinnamon on the sides of neck and white spot on the hind-neck. In Fall, black fades to gray. Immature: Darker gray above with buff fringes and breast; yellowish legs.

Similar Species- Other Phalaropes, Lesser Yellowlegs

Song:
A low grunting wurk, wurk, wurk.

Distribution:
Breeds from British Columbia and southern Yukon, east across central Prairie Provinces to Great Lakes area and New Brunswick, and south to south- central California, Utah, eastern Arizona, western New Mexico, Texas, and parts of Midwest. Nonbreeders have been recorded in summer north to central Alaska and parts of western Canada. Winters mainly in western and southern South America, and casually north to southern California and southern Texas.

Habitat:
Found in freshwater marshes and wet meadows. When not breeding, also found on lakes, mudflats and salt marshes, along seacoasts, and at sewage ponds; rarely reported at sea.

Diet:
Eats insects (larvae and adults), especially mosquitoes and craneflies. On salt flats, may feed on flies, brine shrimp, and seeds of aquatic plants.

Ecology:
Builds nest on damp ground; ground may be surrounded by water. Sometimes forms loose colonies, or feeds with other species. Feeds as it walk along muddy shores, wades in shallow water, or swims in whirls.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins in mid- to late May. Male incubates 3-4 eggs for about 20 days; female usually leaves before eggs hatch. Nestlings are precocial and downy. Young are tended by male. Female may acquire second mate and lay second clutch.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Larus pipixcan
(Franklin's Gull)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Laridae
Family Description: Gulls and Terns

Physical Description:
13 1/2-14 1/2" (34-39 cm). In summer, the head is black with a conspicuous broken white eye-ring and red, slender bill, and the breast has a rosy bloom. Back gray; wings gray, ending in a white band and then black tips. Usually have black legs, but sometimes red feet. Immatures are brownish-gray above and white below, with black tail band, and hooded appearance.

Similar Species- Laughing Gull

Song:
A shrill, laughing kuk-kuk-kuk; also mewing cries.

Distribution:
Breeds from Canadian Prairie Provinces, south to east-central Oregon, southern Idaho, northwestern Utah, northwestern Wyoming, northeastern South Dakota, and northwestern Indiana. Nonbreeders occur in summer from east-central British Columbia and northeastern Manitoba, south to northern New Mexico, southeastern Wyoming, Kansas, central Indiana, and Great Lakes. Winters primarily in South America, and casually along coastal Texas and Louisiana.

Habitat:
When breeding, found on sloughs, marshy lakes, and prairie freshwater marshes. When not breeding, found on seacoasts, bays, estuaries, lakes, rivers, marshes, ponds, irrigated fields, and mudflats.

Diet:
Feeds primarily on insects. Also eats aquatic insects and small fishes in small ponds and sloughs.

Ecology:
Builds floating nest anchored to platform of dead reeds. Forms large colonies (up to 15,000-20,000 individuals); largest colony in Idaho is at Gray's Lake National Wildlife Refuge with an estimated 5,000-6,000 nests. Breeders will desert nests if disturbed. Individuals catch prey in air and follow farmers' plows to feed on unearthed insects and their larvae.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins early May to early June. Both sexes incubate 2-3 eggs for about 18-20 days. Nestlings are semi-precocial. Young are tended by both adults.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 74pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Larus delawarensis
(Ring-billed Gull)

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Laridae
Family Description: Gulls and Terns

Physical Description:
17 1/2-21" (44-53 cm). Adults have white head, neck, underparts, and tail; wing tips black with large white spots; extensive blackish on underside of primaries; bill yellow with narrow black ring completely encircling the bill; feet yellow; reddish eye-ring. Immatures have pinkish bill with black tip; gray-brown above with whitish underparts; white tail with narrow black subterminal band; pinkish legs.

Similar Species- Mew, Herring, and California Gulls

Song:
A high pitched, shrill kyow kyow kyow.

Distribution:
Breeds from Washington east to Manitoba, and south to northeastern California, Colorado, and South Dakota. Also breeds in eastern U.S. and Canada. Nonbreeders occur in summer north to central Alaska, portions of western Canada, and south through wintering range. Winters coastally from southern British Columbia to southern Mexico (rarely south to Central America). Also winters on East Coast and in interior from Great Lakes to central Mexico.

Habitat:
Found on seacoasts, bays, estuaries, rivers, lakes, ponds, irrigated fields and plowed lands, and in cities and dumps. In Idaho, often associated with California Gulls, but nests in more vegetated areas.

Diet:
Feeds opportunistically on various animals, plant material, and garbage. Also eats insects and fruits.

Ecology:
Forages on land or water surface, or sometimes in vegetation; may take prey in air. Builds nest in matted vegetation on islands. Forms colonies. Pirates other nests. Fox predation may result in reproductive failure of local breeding colonies.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate usually 3 eggs (2.2-3.0 eggs in Idaho) for about 21 days. Young are tended by both parents, are fed until able to fly, and usually attain adult plumage in 3 yr. Adults may form female-female pairs or polygynous trios. In Idaho, colony size averages over 2000 nests.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 74pp.

Photo by Fred Fallon, ©2002.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Larus californicus
(California Gull)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Laridae
Family Description: Gulls and Terns

Physical Description:
20-23" (51-58 cm). Adults have white head, underparts, and tail; back and wings dark gray; wing tips black with large white spots; red and black spot on the lower mandible; dark eyes with reddish eye-ring; legs yellow-green. Immatures mottled with brown both above and on underparts; tail mostly all dark; bill gray-pink with subterminal black bar; legs pinkish; lack eye-ring.

Similar Species- Herring and Ring-billed Gulls

Song:
A shuddering, repetitive kee-yah.

Distribution:
Breeds from parts of western Canada, south to east-central North Dakota, central Montana, northwestern Wyoming, eastern Idaho, northwestern Utah, Northwestern Nevada, eastern California, southeastern Oregon, and southern Washington. Winters from southern Washington and eastern Idaho, south along Pacific Coast to southern Baja California and northwestern mainland Mexico.

Habitat:
Found on seacoasts, bays, estuaries, mudflats, marshes, irrigated fields, lakes, ponds, dumps, agricultural lands, and in cities.

Diet:
In inland areas, feeds on mice and insects (crickets, grasshoppers, and cutworms). Along the coast, feeds on dead fish and garbage; scavenges behind boats and around harbors and dumps.

Ecology:
Builds nest in depression on ground; in Idaho, nests are typically on islands. May gather in large flocks, often in association with Ring-billed or other gulls. Species is colonial; colony size in Idaho averages about 4000 nests. Although Great Horned Owl may cause significant mortality in breeding colony, colonial waterbird surveys conducted between 1984 and 1994 indicate that California Gull numbers have increased three-fold during this time period.

Reproduction:
Breeding begins in late April in southern range, to early June in north. Both sexes incubate 3 eggs for 23-27 days (2.2-2.6 eggs in Idaho). Nestlings are semi-precocial and downy. Young are tended by both parents. Adults may form female-female pairs.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 101pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Sterna caspia
(Caspian Tern)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Laridae
Family Description: Gulls and Terns

Physical Description:
19-23" (48-58 cm). Large, bulky tern with a shallowly forked tail. Black cap with a slight crest; large, spear-shaped, red bill with a dark tip; streaked forehead. Extensive black primaries on underside.

Similar Species- Elegant and Royal Terns

Song:
A hoarse, low kraa-uh, deeper than other terns; also repeated kaks. Immature birds utter a high, whistled whee-you.

Distribution:
Breeds locally (mostly in interior, but on coast in Washington and California) in Washington, eastern Oregon, northern Utah, northwestern Wyoming, Idaho (recent range expansion), and North Dakota, south to southern California, western Nevada and northern Mexico. Also breeds in portions of Canada, and locally on Atlantic and Gulf coasts and U.S. Great Lakes. Winters mainly north to California and North Carolina, and south to Mexico, sometimes to northern South America.

Habitat:
Found on seacoasts, bays, estuaries, lakes, marshes, and rivers.

Diet:
Eats mainly fishes, but will also eat eggs and young of other terns and gulls.

Ecology
Least gregarious tern; nests singly, or may form colonies of up to several thousand pairs (in Idaho, average colony size is 11.5 nests). Nests in rocks or on ground (in Idaho, nesting sites are on islands). When not breeding, often rests with flocks of other terns. Dives from air to obtain food at water surface; sometimes feeds from surface like a gull.

Reproduction:
clutch varies from 2-3 eggs. Both parents incubate eggs (20-22 days) and tend young, which leave nest in a few days, and first fly at 4-5 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 74pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Sterna hirundo
(Common Tern)

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Laridae
Family Description: Gulls and Terns

Physical Description:
13-16" (33-41 cm). A medium-sized, slender tern with long, deeply forked tail. Breeding adults are white, with pearl gray back and wings, and a black cap; dark outer and light inner primary feathers; bill red-orange with a black tip; feet red- orange. Winter adults and immatures: black cap is reduced to nape and eye line, and the bill is blackish.

Similar Species- Forster's Tern, Arctic Tern

Song:
A harsh, drawling kee-arr (downward inflection), also a quick, sharp kik-kik-kik.

Distribution:
Breeds from northern Alberta, east across parts of Canada to southern Labrador, and south to eastern Washington, northeastern Montana, portions of Great Plains, Midwest, and New England, and Gulf Coast (locally). Winters from Baja California and South Carolina, south to Peru and northern Argentina. In Idaho, has recently nested at American Falls Reservoir.

Habitat:
Found on seacoasts, estuaries, bays, lakes, rivers, and marshes.

Diet:
Eats mainly small fishes and crustaceans.

Ecology:
Dives from air to obtain food at water surface. Nests on ground, amid sand, shells, or pebbles. Found singly or in small, loose groups when not breeding; sometimes forms large flocks during migration. Two-year study found fish abundance affected reproductive performance. In Massachusetts study, loss of eggs and chicks was attributed to nocturnal desertion of nests by adults in response to predation by Great Horned Owl. Susceptible (especially females, just prior to laying) to poisoning from toxin accumulated in fishes.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 2-3 eggs (laid mostly May-July) for 21-27 days. Both sexes tend young, which may leave nest after 3 days (but return for brooding), and first fly at about 4 wk. Female may lay 2 clutches/yr, but second brood rarely fledge.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. and A. Gerstell. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial nesting waterbirds in southern Idaho, 1993. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 74pp.

Photo by Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Sterna forsteri
(Forster's Tern)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Laridae
Family Description: Gulls and Terns

Physical Description:
14-16 1/4" (36-41 cm). A slender, graceful, gull-like bird with a black cap, long, pointed wings; and a deeply forked tail. Breeding adults have pale gray back and wings with frosty tips, whitish primaries, and gray tail. Bright orange-red bill with black tip; legs orange. Winter adults and immatures only have black patch around eye; bill black.

Similar Species- Common Tern, Arctic Tern

Song:
A harsh, nasal aaaap; a low, nasal kyarr; a buzzy zraa; and a high-pitched kyer.

Distribution:
Breeds from central Prairie Provinces of Canada, south to southern California, western Nevada, southern Idaho, northern Utah, northern and eastern Colorado, and portions of Midwest. Also breeds along portions of Gulf and Atlantic coasts. Winters from central California and Baja California, south to Central America, and from northern Mexico to portions of Gulf and East coasts.

Habitat:
Found on freshwater and salt marshes. During migration and in winter, also found on seacoasts, bays, estuaries, rivers, and lakes.

Diet:
Eats insects and fishes.

Ecology:
When not breeding, found singly or in small, loose groups. Frequently nests in loose colonies; vigorously defends nest. In Idaho, average colony size is small -- 8.1 nests. Builds platform nest on water, or may nest independently on ground or sand. Intolerant of other birds, but American Coot may parasitize nest. Snatches food off surface of water while in flight, or dives into water.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 3- 4 eggs for about 23-24 days. Nestlings are semi-precocial and downy. Young are tended by both adults until capable of flight.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. 1994. Status and distribution of colonial waterbirds in northern Idaho and selected species in southern Idaho, 1994. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 31pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Chlidonias niger
(Black Tern)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Charadriiformes
Order Description: Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns
Family: Laridae
Family Description: Gulls and Terns

Physical Description:
9-10 1/4" (23-26 cm). A small, dark tern with black bill. Breeding adult: Head and underparts black; back, wings, and top of slightly forked tail dark gray. Wing linings and undertail coverts white. In fall and winter have gray back and wings, white underparts, and white head with dark hood.

Song:
Call a sharp kip, krik, or keek.

Distribution:
Breeds from British Columbia, across portions of Canada to Nova Scotia, and south locally to southern California, Colorado, portions of Midwest, and northern New England. Winters along both coasts, and from Panama to Peru and Surinam.

Habitat:
Prefers sheltered, offshore waters and bays; comes to shore chiefly during migrations or when breeding, when it is found along seacoasts, bays, estuaries, lagoons, lakes, and rivers.

Diet:
Eats insects and other invertebrates, including small fishes and crustaceans.

Ecology:
Gregarious. Forms loose nesting colonies, sometimes in association with Forster'sTern. Usually builds floating platform nest in vegetation. Feeds from surface of saltwater, forages on vegetation, or plucks food from air.

Reproduction
Both sexes incubate 3 eggs (usually), for 20-24 days. Both parents tend young, which first fly at about 3 wk, and become fully fledged at about 4 wk.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Trost, C.H. 1994. The status and distribution of colonial waterbirds in northern Idaho and selected species in southern Idaho, 1994. Dept. Biol. Sciences, Idaho St. Univ., Pocatello. 31pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Zenaida macroura
(Mourning Dove)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Columbiformes
Order Description: Pigeons, Doves
Family: Columbidae
Family Description: Pigeons and Doves

Physical Description:
11-13" (28-33 cm). Brown above with somewhat darker tail and wings and pale buffy below. Long, pointed tail with large white spots on outside edges and dark spots along inside edge. Nape and sides of neck have a purple sheen; black spot on side of head below ear patch; bill dark; light blue eye-ring.

Similar Species- White-winged Dove, Inca Dove, Band-tailed Pigeon, Ringed Turtle-Dove, Spotted Dove, Eurasian Collared Dove

Song:
A hollow, mournful cooo, cooo, coo. First one or two notes often not heard.

Distribution:
Breeds from southern Canada and possibly southeastern Alaska, south to Panama. Winters in breeding range, except for northernmost populations, which migrate farther south to winter.

Habitat:
Found in open woodlands, forest edges, cultivated lands with scattered trees and bushes, parks and suburban areas, arid and desert country (generally near water), and second growth. Occupies wide variety of habitats from northern to southern Idaho, but prefers lower elevations and open regions.

Diet:
Feeds on wide variety of wild seeds, as well as waste grain (wheat, corn, rye, oats, etc.). Also eats some insects, but about 98% of diet is seeds.

Ecology:
Usually forages on ground. May fly long distances in search of water; Idaho study found doves in desert moved an average of 3.7 km from feeding and loafing sites to watering sites. Individuals nest in trees, on ground, or in nests of other species. In Idaho, species is highly migratory, nesting throughout state, but wintering in small, localized flocks; greatest numbers migrate south after summering and breeding.

Reproduction:
Protracted breeding season. Both sexes (male diurnally) incubate usually 2 eggs for 13-15 days. Young are fed by at least 1 parent for 27 days (mainly by male after 16 days). Pair forms life-long bond, and may raise 2-5 broods/yr. Breeding population trends in Idaho have declined from 1966-1987, as they have throughout the western U.S.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Reeves, H.M., R.E. Tomlinson, and J.C. Bartonek. 1993. Population characteristics and trends in the western management unit. Pp. 341-376 in T.S. Basket et al., eds. Ecology and management of the mourning dove. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Coccyzus americanus
(Yellow-billed Cuckoo)

Order: Cuculiformes
Order Description: Cuckoos
Family: Cuculidae
Family Description:Cuckoos

Physical Description:
11-13 1/2" (28-34 cm). A long, slender bird with, gray-brown back, and white underparts. Red-brown in primary feathers of the wings, most noticeable in flight; long, black tail with large white spots at tips of undertail feathers. Yellow lower mandible on the slightly curved bill.

Similar Species- Black-billed Cuckoo

Song:
Song is a long, rapid, throaty ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-kow-kow- kowlp-kowlp--kowlp--kowlp, slowing toward the end.

Distribution:
Breeds from interior California, east to northern Utah, Minnesota, and New Brunswick, and south to southern Baja California, Mexico, and Gulf Coast. Winters in southern Central America and South America.

Habitat:
Found in open woodlands (especially where undergrowth is thick), parks, and deciduous riparian woodlands. When not breeding, found in forests, woodlands, and scrub. In Idaho, occupies riparian areas with thick understory.

Diet:
Eats mainly caterpillars. Will also eat other insects, some fruits, and occasionally, small lizards and frogs.

Ecology:
Buiilds untidy nest in tree or shrub; occasionally uses nest of other species. Forages or hovers in foliage. Rare in Idaho, and present only in summer. Species is declining in parts of range due to deterioration of riparian habitat.

Reproduction:
Female (usually) incubates 2-6 eggs (commonly 3-5), for about 14 days. Both parents tend young, which climb in branches at 7-9 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Taylor, D.M. and C.H. Trost. 1987. The status of rare birds in Idaho. Murrelet 68:69-93.

Original images provided by Jeff Spendelow,© 1999
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Ceryle alcyon
(Belted Kingfisher)

Order: Coraciiformes
Order Description: Kingfishers
Family: Alcedinidae
Family Description: Kingfishers

Physical Description:
11-14 1/2" (28-36 cm). A large-headed bird with ragged, bushy crest and large, heavy, spear-shaped bill. Males are bluish-gray above and white below with broad gray-blue breast band. Female has a second rust-colored band on upper belly, below the bray-blue one.

Similar Species- Green Kingfisher

Song:
Call is a loud, harsh, dry, staccato rattle, often prolonged.

Distribution:
Breeds from western and central Alaska, east across portions of Canada to Labrador, and south to southern California, southern Texas, Gulf Coast, and southern Florida. Winters in south-coastal and southeastern Alaska, British Columbia, Colorado, southern Great Lakes region, and New England, and south to northern South America (rare).

Habitat:
Found primarily along water (both freshwater and marine), including lakes, wooded creeks and rivers, seacoasts, bays, and estuaries.

Diet:
Eats mainly fishes, but will also eat various other vertebrates and invertebrates.

Ecology:
Solitary except during breeding period. Usually nests in burrow constructed in bank near water. In some areas, availability of foraging sites may be more limiting than availability of nest sites. Obtains food by diving into water from air or perch.

Reproduction:
Both sexes incubate 5- 8 eggs (usually 6-7), for 23-24 days. Young leave nest after 30-35 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
No references are available at this time.

Photo by George Jameson, ©2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Tyto alba
(Common Barn-owl)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Strigiformes
Order Description: Owls
Family: Strigidae
Family Description: Typical Owls

Physical Description:
14-20" (36-51 cm). Medium-sized owl. White, heart-shaped face ringed with tan with dark eyes and light bill; no ear tufts. White below, sparsely spotted black; golden tan back with fine pearl gray streaks; spotted black and white on crown, back, and wings.

Similar Species- Short-eared Owl, immature Snowy Owl

Song:
A loud, almost blood-curdling, rasping hiss.

Distribution:
Resident from southern Canada and northern U.S., south to South America. Northern populations are partially migratory.

Habitat:
Found in wide variety of situations in open and partly-open country. Frequently found around human habitation.

Diet:
Eats mainly small mammals. In many areas (including southern Idaho), voles are principal prey. Pocket gophers, ground squirrels, pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and deer mice are locally important.

Ecology:
Nests in cavity in standing snag, cliff, or building. Breeding density depends on availability of nest sites and food supply. Young disperse widely from natal area (up to hundreds or 1900 km has been documented). Home ranges may overlap considerably where nest sites and prey are abundant. Individual remains solitary or paired when not breeding. Hunts mostly at night, from about 1 hr after sunset to about 1 hr before sunrise. May forage up to a few km from nesting or roosting site. Hunts mainly by quartering flights 1.5-4.5 m above ground. In northern winter, often roosts in dense conifers; also roosts in nest boxes, barns, and silos. Susceptible to starvation during prolonged low temperatures and snow cover. In Utah study, most adults survived only 1 breeding season. Great Horned Owl is principal predator in North America. Long-term study of breeding density and foraging ecology continues in Idaho Birds of Prey Area.

Reproduction:
Breeds throughout year in Texas (as many as 3 broods/year); some California birds attempt 2 broods/year. Average clutch size is 4-6 eggs. Female incubates eggs (21-24 days for single egg, 29-34 days for full clutch). Female broods and feeds young, male brings food. In Utah study, mean fledging time was 64 days. Male may care for fledged young as female begins second clutch. Most individuals apparently breed at 1 yr. Pair are typically monogamous with life-long pair bond; polygyny sometimes occurs.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Marti, C.D. 1988. A long-term study of food-niche dynamics in the common barn- owl: comparisons within and between populations. Can. J. Zool. 66:1803-1812.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Otus flammeolus
(Flammulated Owl)

Order: Strigiformes
Order Description: Owls
Family: Strigidae
Family Description: Typical Owls

Physical Description:
6-7" (15-18 cm). Has small, indistinct ear tufts and dark eyes on a brownish-gray face framed by black. Grayish above with largish white spots on shoulders; light below, with white and rust-colored markings.

Similar Species- Screech-owls

Song:
A low, mellow hoot, single or double, is repeated almost endlessly, and sounds mechanical.

Distribution:
Breeds locally from southern and southeastern British Columbia, north-central Washington, eastern Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and northern Colorado, south to portions of southwestern states and central Mexico. Winters from central Mexico, south in highlands to Guatemala and El Salvador, and casually north to southern California.

Habitat:
Found in montane forests; associated mainly with ponderosa or Jeffrey pine (often intermixed with aspen in northern range, oaks in southern range, Douglas-fir in British Columbia). In areas with warm, dry summers, also found locally in spruce/fir and lodgepole pine/red fir. During migration, found in wooded areas in lowlands and mountains. Prefers old growth. In Idaho, occupies older ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and mixed coniferous forests.

Diet:
Feeds on various insects (e.g., moths, beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, and caterpillars). May eat small mammals or birds.

Ecology:
Nocturnal. Foraging tactics include hawk-gleaning, hawking, hover-gleaning, and drop-pouncing. Nests in cavity (old woodpecker hole) in standing snag. In Colorado study, nesting home ranges averaged 14 ha; foraging activity was concentrated in 1-4 areas within home range. During nesting period in Colorado, foraging activity peaked 15-30 min after sunset and 1-1.5 hr before sunrise; birds ceased activity during snow or rain. One study found generally fewer than 4 singing males/40 ha in Oregon, British Columbia, and Colorado. Surveys in Idaho report densities up to 1.24 males/40 ha.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 2-4 eggs (usually 3), for 21-22 days; male brings food. Nestling period has been reported as 22-24 nights and 21-23 days; fledglings are tended by both parents (in Colorado, parents divide brood).

Conservation:

Important State References:
Moore, T.L. and G.D. Frederick. 1991. Distribution and habitat of flammulated owls (Otus flammeolus) in west-central Idaho. Idaho Dept. Fish & Game, Boise. 28pp.

Photo by C. Trost, ©2000.
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.

Otus kennicottii
(Western Screech-owl)

Order: Strigiformes
Order Description: Owls
Family: Strigidae
Family Description: Typical Owls

Physical Description:
7-10" (18-25 cm). Small owl with ear tufts and usually gray camouflage coloring. A black-rimmed facial disk surrounds clear yellow eyes and a dark bill. Underparts grayish-white with black vertical streaks and fine gray cross-bars. Prominent white spots on the shoulders.

Similar Species- Eastern Screech-Owl, Whiskered Screech-Owl

Song:
An accelerating "bouncing ball" series of hollow whistles, often dropping in pitch toward the end.

Distribution:
Resident from south-coastal and southeastern Alaska, coastal and southern British Columbia, northern Idaho, western Montana, southeastern Colorado, and western Oklahoma, south to southern Baja California, northern Mexico, and western Texas. Apparently has moved north into southern Alberta.

Habitat:
Found in woodlands (especially oak and riparian woodlands), and in scrub. In central Idaho, screech owls are limited in distribution by occurrence of deciduous riparian habitat, but are occasionally found in aspen.

Diet:
Feeds mainly on small mammals (mice and shrews), insects, birds, and sometimes other small vertebrates. Diet may vary seasonally and geographically, depending on local prey abundance.

Ecology:
Nocturnal. Nests in cavity in standing snag; may nest in crevice in building, in abondoned magpie nest, or in nest box. Hunts from perch; captures prey on ground. In central Idaho, home ranges of 2 radio- tagged birds were reported as 3-9 ha and 29-58 ha. Distance between adjacent pairs varies from about 50 to a few hundred m. Recent study in southwestern Idaho examined timing of dispersal and post-fledging movements using radiotelemetry and videotaping.

Reproduction:
clutch size averages 3-4 eggs; incubation by female lasts about 26 days.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Ellsworth, E.A., J.E. Emerson, J.R. Belthoff, and J. Doremus. 1994. Post-fledging movements and dispersal timing of western screech owls. Pp. 285-288 in K. Steenhof, Ed., Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area, 1994 Annual Rep., USDI Bur. Land Mange., Boise District.

Photo by Jim Nestler,© 2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Bubo virginianus
(Great Horned Owl)

Order: Strigiformes
Order Description: Owls
Family: Strigidae
Family Description: Typical Owls

Physical Description:
18-25" (46-64 cm). Large owl with ear tufts set wide apart. Mottled gray-brown above with closely spaced, fine dark gray horizontal barring below. Conspicuous white throat bib below a tawny face.

Similar Species- Long-eared Owl

Song:
A deeply resonant hooting, usually uttered 5-6 times.

Distribution:
Breeds from western and central Alaska, east to southern Keewatin and Labrador, and south to southern South America. Winters generally throughout breeding range. Northernmost populations are partially migratory, wintering south to southern Canada and northern United States. Species is most common and widely distributed owl in Idaho.

Habitat:
Found in various moist or arid forested habitats, from lowland forests (deciduous or evergreen) to open temperate woodlands, including second-growth forests, swamps, orchards, riverine forests, brushy hillsides, and desert.

Diet:
Broad diet; eats mainly mammals (commonly mouse to rabbit size), and small to large birds (including hawks and waterfowl) but also amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates. Idaho study found voles and deer mice were main food items. Parents provide about 300 g of food per day, per nestling.

Ecology:
Hunts from perch; captures prey on ground. Caches food. Utilizes abandoned stick nest in tree, cliff ledge, or man- made platform. Productivity peaks with snowshoe hare population in northern range. Size of home range varies seasonally and geographically. density varies, but is usually about 1 pair/5-21 km2. Idaho study found density of 1.7 owls/10 km2; juvenile survival was 1.8/nest.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 2-3 eggs for 26-35 days; male supplies food. Young leave nest at 4-5 wk, fly well at 9-10 wk, and are dependent on parents for several wk. Most yearling females do not nest. Female may re-lay if first clutch is lost.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Frounfelker, C.R. 1977. Prey selection of the great horned owl with reference to habitat and prey availability. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 62pp.

Photo by George Jameson, ©2002
Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Glaucidium gnoma
(Northern Pygmy-owl)

Link to photo provided by USGS - Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/Infocenter/infocenter.html

Order: Strigiformes
Order Description: Owls
Family: Strigidae
Family Description: Typical Owls

Physical Description:
6 3/4-7 1/2" (17-19 cm). A very small owl with long, finely barred tail. Small round head has no ear tufts and two white-edged black spots at back of neck suggesting eyes. Brown with fine buff spotting on head and streaked flanks; white spots on wings; bolder brown streaks on white belly and breast. Eyes clear yellow.

Similar Species- Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl

Song:
A series of hollow whistles ending with 2-3 deliberate notes on one pitch. Also a rapid trill or rattle.

Distribution:
Resident from British Columbia, south through western U.S., interior Mexico, and Guatemala to central Honduras, and east to Colorado, central New Mexico, and western Texas. Possibly breeds in southeastern Alaska.

Habitat
Found in dense forests or open woodlands in foothills and mountains; frequents meadows while foraging. Usually found in vicinity of forest opening, rather than in unbroken, dense forest.

Diet:
Feeds mainly on mice and large insects, but will also eat other small mammals, birds, and reptiles.

Ecology:
Chiefly diurnal; most activity at dawn and dusk. Glides/dives down from elevated perch to capture prey. In Idaho, forages diurnally more than other forest owls. caches food. Nests in natural or abandoned cavity in standing snag. Tends to be solitary, or in highly dispersed pairs or faily groups throughout year. Reported territory size: 0.2-4 km2 (Europe). Maximum reported density: 4.2 territories/10 km2 (Europe). May display seasonal elevation migration.

Reproduction:
Eggs are laid in April- June in California, May-June in Colorado and Arizona. Female (probably) incubates usualy 3 eggs (in northern Americas) for about 29 days; male brings food. Young are fed by both parents, leave nest at about 30 days, and are tended by parents another 20-30 days, maturing in first year.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Hayward, G.D. 1983. Resource partitioning among six forest owls in The River of No Return Wilderness, Idaho. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 132pp.

Design by Ean Harker©1999, 2000.
Written by Jason Karl, 2000.

Athene cunicularia
(Burrowing Owl)

Order: Strigiformes
Order Description: Owls
Family: Strigidae
Family Description: Typical Owls

Physical Description:
9-11" (23-28 cm). Small owl with no ear tufts on rounded head; stubby tail and long legs. Earth brown with white spots on back, wings, and crown; whitish below with brown barring. Whitish eyebrows and chin stripe; yellow eyes. Immature has no barring below.

Song:
A cackling alarm note: quick-quick-quick. Also a mellow, rolling dove-like coo- c-o-o.

Distribution:
Breeds in southwestern Canada, south through western U.S., central Mexico, and central and southern Florida, to much of South America (locally). Withdraws from northernmost portions of breeding range in northern winter. Winters regularly south to portions of Central America.

Habitat:
Found in open grasslands (especially prairies, plains and savannas), and sometimes in open areas such as airports or vacant lots near human habitation. In southern Idaho, nests in sagebrush steppe and agricultural lands.

Diet:
Feeds primarily on large insects (especially in warmer months) and rodents. Sometimes eats birds and amphibians.

Ecology:
Primarily Nocturnal in winter in northern range, diurnal and crepuscular in summer. Catches prey in flight or drops to ground. Nests and roosts in burrow dug by mammal or owl. May mimic rattlesnake if disturbed in burrow. Territory defense is mainly limited to immediate vicinity of nest burrow; may share foraging area. Badger plays important role in nesting ecology in Idaho -- provides nest burrows and is a major predator. Reported densities: 12.5 ha/pair (California); 3.5-6 ha/pair (North Dakota); 13-16 ha/pair (Saskatchewan). Home range in Saskatchewan reported at 0.14-4.81 km2; 95% of all movements were within 600 m of nest burrow.

Reproduction:
Female incubates 6-7 eggs (on average), for 27-30 days. Male provides food during incubation and early nestling stages. Young (average of 3-5 fledglings) run and forage at 4 wk, are capable of sustained flight at 6 wk, and first breed at 1 yr (some may not). Female generally produces 1 brood/yr.

Conservation:

Important State References:
Rich, T. 1986. Habitat and nest-site selection by burrowing owls in the sagebrush steppe of Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:548-555.