India
India

Formation of Nation-State

4000-2500 b.c.  Native Dravidian Indus civilization
1500 b.c. 	"Aryan" invasions followed by origins of  Hinduism and
                caste system
321-250 b.c.	India unified under Buddhist Emperor Ashoka
==AD==
800-1000	Muslim conquests
~1254		Islamic Empire overrun by Mongols but their descendants
                "Moghuls" convert to Islam and rule India as their empire.
1757		British begin rule in India
1857		Sepahi (Sepoy) Mutiny
1858		Parliament assumes rule of India
1885		Indian National Congress founded
1935		Government of India Act
1947 		Independence of India granted; partitioned into Pakistan
and India - war follows over Kashmir in 1948
1950		New constitution
1965		Second war with Pakistan
1971		Third war over Bangladesh
1974		India tests nuclear weapon
1975-77	        "President's Rule" state of emergency

1984		Indira Gandhi assassinated in retaliation for Indian army
                attack on Sikhs' most holy shrine in Amritsar
1989		Congress Party loses its majority in parliament
1992		Rising waves of Hindu fundamentalism pushes Bharatiya
                Jannata Party (right- wing pro-Hindu party) to prominence 
                in Parliament
	        - Babri Mosque in Ayodhya destroyed by Hindu
                fundamentalists claiming it stood on site of more ancient 
                temple to Hindu god Rama
	        - fuels tensions with Pakistan
1998		Pakistan explodes nuclear weapons and begins covert
                operations in Kashmir
2002            Hostile India-Pakistan stand-off in Kashmir while Pakistan
                tests long-range nuclear missiles

Political Culture

 	Key Point - Indian civilization is SYNCRETISTIC

	- India has absorbed repeated waves of foreign invasions and
        foreign cultural, religious and political influences by absorbing 
        them and "Indianizing" them . . .

Impact of Religion

	Hinduism:	Caste (Varna) system:
				Brahmins - priests
				Kshatriya - rulers and warriors
				Vaisyas - commoners - merchants,
				artisans 
				Sudras - peasants and menials
					Untouchables - lowest of the low
	Idea of Reincarnation and Karma

	Islam and other	Minority Groups: Muslims became elite rulers -
        Sikhs became to be a force far beyond their meall numebrs

Impact of Foreigners:

	Islam introduced Shari'ah Courts

	British introduced Parliamentary System and law courts and common
        law - also imported ideas of nationalism, rule of law, equality 
        socialism.

Political System:

	Synthesis of British Parliamentary System and 
	U.S. - federalism with judicial review of Supreme
	Court.

	Executive: President -ceremonial head of state 
	elected jointly by both houses of parliament and
	state legislatures for 5 year term 

	PM and cabinet (Council of Ministers) appointed by majority party
        or coalition

	Legislature:

	Lok Sabha 545 members 543 - for 5 year terms 
	2 represent "British Indians"

	Rajya Sabha - 245 - elected by state legislatures
	233 for 6 year terms and 12 appointed to represent professions.

	Judiciary - State courts and national supreme
	court - 26 members but must retire at 65

Federalism: 25 states and 7 territories
	16 official languages but English lingua franca



 
Political Culture:

Syncretistic synthesis of western beliefs
in democracy, material progress, and liberty with traditional Hindu
culture stressing ascriptive caste system, religious passivity and
fatalism and contempt for material progress.  Westernized elites
dominate society while passivity of traditional masses masks extent
to which Indian society resists westernization.

Executive:  Ceremonial head of state President jointly elected by
Indian Parliament and State legislatures.  Prime Minister (head of
government) elected by majority in lower house.  P.M. selects
cabinet members.

Legislature:  Rajya Sabha (upper house) Rajya Sabha - 245 - elected by
state legislatures 233 for 6 year terms and 12 appointed to represent
professions. ---> holdover of defunct British system] while Lok Sabha
(lower house) elected on plurality basis from single-members districts -
545 members from 543 districts- for 5 year termsand 2 members that
represent "British Indians"   

Judiciary:  British common law and court practices inherited from
Raj but Indian Supreme Court has right of judicial review which it
has exercised on several occasions.  Judiciary is politically
independent.  Indian Supreme Court tried in recent years to
assert right of abstract judicial review of pending Constitutional
amendments but was rebuffed by Indian parliament and backed off

State courts and national supreme court - 26 members but must retire at 65

Electoral System:  Single-member districts--plurality winner-take-
all system.  National elections held every five years.

Political Parties:  Congress Party largest and best organized--
committed to national unity and a secular democratic state. 
Originally strongly socialist and egalitarian in orientation,
Congress party has continued to press for rights of untouchables
but has become less hostile to capitalism.  Janata party a
coalition of six parties united only in their opposition to
Congress Party.  Bharatiya Janata party is a sort of Hindu
fundamentalist extremist populist party.  Federalism promotes the
existence of regional parties that often dominate local
governments, e.g. Akali Dal (Sikh) party of Punjab state.

Interest Groups:  Sectarian, ethnic and caste divisions prevent
formation of national interest groups on western model. 
Consociational nature of society allows interest associations only
within caste, religious, and ethnic divisions.

Special Features:  Indian constitution tried to abolish caste
system, or at least the more objectionable features of it.  It
promotes non-sectarianism and forbids proselytization of one group
by another.  Although Indian constitution is founded largely on
British parliamentary model provisions for emergency powers of
president allow President near dictatorial powers in specified
conditions of national emergency.

            Federalism:  Like Canada, India combines federalism with a
system of a unitary national government and 25 States and 7 Union
(=federal) territories.  States have enumerated reserved powers. 
Also like Canada, India has a federal Supreme Court with powers of
judicial review introducing an incongruous element of separation of
powers into a unitary system.

77% of India's population is rural and of parochial orientation

73% of Mexico's population is urban and has strong participant 
    orientation

size = 1/3th size of United States but over three times our population!

pop. 860 million----> 1 billion???

1857 Sepahi Revolt "Biting the Bullet" 65,000 Britishseek to control
120 million angry Indians

End of E India Company ---> British "Raj"

Hindu  bureaucratic class  Muslim arrogance

AUg 15, 1947 Independence and Partition

Separate fates of India and Pakistan:  Both countries started out with 
very similar political culture and hsitory with difference being that 
Pakistan had a majority Muslim population.  Pakistan tended towards 
military dictatorships interspersed with weak democracies while India has 
had more consistent progress towards a democratic political system and 
society - - - this is not to say that India doesn't have its own share of 
"warts"  - - - among them the following:

problems of India's society:  rule of law  versus
                                     oppression of women
                                     "bride burning"
                                     forcible abortions
                                     untouchables
                                     comunnal violence
                                     increasing crime
                                     [India prohibition]
                                     Shah Banu court case 1995
"REvolution of Rising Fristrations"

COnstitution 395 Article, 
            250 from Government of India Act (1935)
            over 88 amendments

de facto national language is English, officially Hindi is main Indian 
dialect